UC-NRLF 


735 


y/. 


A  CONCISE 
ANALYTICAL  AND  LOGICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

OF   THE 

ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM, 


AND   OF  THE 


ELEMENTS  OF  PROGNOSTICATION, 

BY  WHICH  THE  WEATHER  MAY  BE  FORECASTED, 

ADAPTED  TO  THE  PRACTICAL  MIND  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

"Trxitli   is  iriiglity   and.    will   prevail." 


By  THOMAS  B.  BUTLER, 

AUTHOR  OF  THE  "PHILOSOPHY   OF  THE  WEATHER." 


(Ebiiiorc. 


PUBLISHED  AT  NORWALK,  CONNECTICUT, 
BY  ANDREW  SELLECK. 

1870 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  bj 
THOMAS  B.  BUTLER, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the   United   States,  for  the 
District  of  Connecticut. 


PRINTED  BY 
CASE,  LOCKWOOD  &  BRAINARD, 

HARTFORD,     CONN. 


•IATTKODUCT1OIT. 


THIS  BOOK  is  the  result  of  habitual  personal  observation  and 
continued  investigation  and  reflection  for  half  a  century.  It  will 
be  found,  on  critical  and  thorough  examination,  to  be  substantially 
what  its  title  page  imports. 

It  was  no  light  matter  to  undertake  to  brush  away  the  mystery 
and  superstition  which  have  enveloped  the  subject,  and  make 
it  comprehensible  by  practical  men ;  and  a  much  more  serious 
thing  to  attempt  to  meet,  expose,  and  refute  the  prevalent  false 
theories  by  which  the  subject  is  persistently  obscured ;  and  the 
reader  should  understand  and  appreciate  my  motives.  He  will 
find  them  stated  in  several  places  in  the  volume ;  and  particularly 
on  pages  367,  8,  and  9,  but  a  brief  explanation  is  proper  here. 

My  early  days  were  spent  at  Wethersfield,  near  the  banks  of 
the  Connecticut.  At  that  point  on  the  river  there  are  two  large 
coves,  and  extensive  meadows  containing  many  creeks,  and  it  is  a 
favorite  stopping  place  for  water-fowl  in  their  spring  and  fall  mi- 
grations up  and  down  the  river.  They  were  then  much  more 
numerous  than  now.  At  the  age  of  121  had  access  to  a  small 
fowling  piece,  and  became  passionately  fond  of  hunting  them.  I 
was  permitted  to  indulge  my  passion  within  certain  limits,  and 
at  prescribed  hours  of  certain  days,  and  I  soon  began  to  feel  inter- 
ested to  know  what  the  weather  would  then  be,  and  to  watch  it,  and 
enquire  respecting  it  of  some  retired  and  weatherwise  sea  cap- 
tains who  lived  in  the  neighborhood.  I  soon  discovered  also  that 
the  fowl  seemed  to  forecast  the  weather,  and  change  their  haunts  in 
advance  of  the  atmospheric  changes,  and  I  directed  my  attention  to 
that  also,  in  order  to  know  where  to  find  them  without  wasting 


IV  INTRODUCTION. 

my  limited  time  in  fruitless  search.  And  thus  I  went  on  observ- 
ing and  studying  the  matter,  and  reading  every  book  I  could  find 
relating  to  it,  until  I  became  imbued  with  a  love  of  it,  and  con- 
tinued the  habit  after  I  left  home  to  acquire  and  practice  the  pro- 
fession of  medicine  to  which  it  was  germain,  and  after  I  changed 
my  profession  in  consequence  of  feeble  health.  In  1856,  I  was 
pursuaded  to  publish  a  small  volume,  entitled  the  "  Philosophy 
of  the  Weather."  It  was  prepared  hastily  while  engaged  in  the 
full  practice  of  the  law,  and  was  not  as  logical  and  full  as  I  might 
have  made  it.  But  it  contained  the  germs  of  this  development, 
and  had  a  considerable  sale,  doing  much  good.  In  1859  I  lis- 
tened to  a  lecture  by  Prof.  Henry,  at  Springfield,  which  rehashed 
the  Halley  fallacies  with  the  Espyan  improvement,  and  which 
was  endorsed  by  Prof.  Loomis  and  others.  That  lecture,  and  the 
endorsements  and  the  debate  which  "followed,  in  connection  with 
other  facts  which  will  appear,  convinced  me,  irrepressibly,  that 
material  progress  in  the  development  of  the  science  by  the  present 
generation  of  meteorologists,  while  holding  to  those  fundamental 
fallacies,  was  IMPOSSIBLE,  and  that  as  they  were  in  a  position  to 
control  in  a  great  measure  the  scientist  mind,  it  was  my  duty  to 
develop  it  to  the  comprehension  of  the  practical  mind  of  the 
country  before  I  should  pass  away. 

The  preparation  of  the  work  was  commenced  the  following 
year,  and  has  been  deliberately  and  carefully  pursued,  during 
periods  which  could  be  honestly  devoted  to  it  without  interfering 
with  the  performance  of  my  judicial  duties.  And,  being  thus  the 
result  of  long-continued  personal  observation  and  investigation, 
and  deliberately  prepared,  and  I  may  truly  add,  without  any  view 
to  pecuniary  advantage  or  scientific  reputation,  I  think  I  may 
assure  the  journalists  and  professional  and  practical  men  of  the 
country,  and  that  they  may  accept  the  assurance,  that  it  is,  so  far  as 
it  professes  to  go,  a  truthful  development,  and  opens  out  the  only 
true  way  to  a  perfect  development  of  the  science,  and  is  worthy  of 
a  careful  study  and  a  candid  appreciation.  Much  labor  and  con- 
siderable money  have  been  bestowed  and  expended  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  work.  I  do  not  expect  compensation  for  one,  or  a 


INTRODUCTION.  V 

full  return  of  the  other.  But  it  would  be  a  satisfaction  to  know 
that  it  is  appreciated  by  those  for  whose  benefit  it  has  been  pre- 
pared. 

The  book  is  necessarily  aggressive.  Error  must  be  exposed 
that  truth  may  prevail.  The  new  arid  fundamental  fact,  that  all 
the  atmospheric  phenomena  result  from  the  operation  of  a  SYSTEM 
of  organizations  created  and  controlled  by  ascertainable  and  intel- 
ligible laws  could  not  be  demonstrated  without  conflict  with  fun- 
damental errors  in  Meteorology,  and  the  men  who  make  it  a 
specialty.  That  conflict  involves  the  accuracy  of  their  public 
teachings,  and  the  worthiness  of  their  reputations  as  meteorologists, 
and  will  excite  their  pride  of  opinion  and  opposition.  But  with 
such  opposition  disinterested  scientists,  who  love  and  seek  truth, 
and  the  community  should  not  sympathize.  The  subject  is  of 
great  general  and  practical  interest  to  all,  and  all  should  sympa- 
thize with,  and  sustain  every  honest  and  disinterested  effort  to  de- 
velop it.  New  facts  and  deductions  should  be  promptly  and  can- 
didly examined  and  tested,  by  whomsoever  discovered,  and  how- 
ever boldly  and  forcibly  presented ;  the  truth  should  be  received, 
and  error,  when  fully  exposed,  abandoned.  By  such  a  course, 
honestly  and  perseveringly  pursued,  this  subject  can  be  speedily 
and  fully  developed,  and  take  a  place  among  the  sciences. 

Meteorology,  as  now  taught  in  lecture,  essay,  and  treatise,  is 
not  a  science.  It  is  not  "a  knowledge  of  laws,  principles,  and  re- 
lations, deductively  or  inductively"  attained.  It  consists  of  one 
fundamental  assumption,  made  by  Halley  in  1686,  before  there 
were  facts  known  from  which  it  could  be  deduced,  and  independent 
descriptions  of  the  varied  atmospherical  phenomena,  with  some 
special  theoretic  assumption  to  explain  each  of  them.  It  recog- 
nizes no  organization  of  the  atmosphere,  or  system,  and  no  laws 
or  principles  but  those  which  belong  to  temperature,  evaporation, 
condensation,  and  the  ascent  of  heated  air,  and  the  mechanical 
effects  which  they  are  assumed  to  produce.  It  is  substantially  all 
theory  and  assumption — uncertain  and  conflicting — with  little  or 
nothing  of  deduction  or  logic ;  and  the  inquiry  is  never  made 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

whether  there  is  an  atmospheric  system,  and  what  are  its  laws, 
but  what  is  your  theory  ?  and  meteorological  progress  is  limited 
to  the  discovery  and  description  of  new  facts,  and  the  invention 
of  some  plausible  explanatory  theory  to  reconcile  each  fact  with 
the  fundamental  assumption  of  Halley. 

That  fundamental  theory  of  Halley,  on  which  the  almost  in- 
numerable and  conflicting  theories  since  invented  hinge,  assumes 
that  the  atmosphere  is  an  aerial  ocean  resting  upon  the  earth,  and 
that  all  the  phenomena  which  occur  in  it  are  produced,  here  and 
there,  casually,  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  heating  the  earth  beneath 
it,  and  thereby  a  part  of  the  air,  causing  the  heated  portion  to 
rise,  whereby  "commotions  '  and  their  accompanying  phenomena 
are  mechanically  produced, — as  boys  raise  bubbles  of  carburetted 
hydrogen  in  ponds  and  streams  by  thrusting  in  sticks  and  stirring 
the  mud  at  the  bottom.  This  theory  suggests  the  idea  of  an 
aerial  Puddleology,  but  it  suggests,  and  admits  of  no  organization, 
general  or  special,  of  the  atmosphere,  nor  any  system,  principles, 
or  laws ;  it  suggests  only  a  difference  of  result  from  differences 
in  the  nature  of  the  surfaces  to  be  heated,  or  their  relative  ex- 
posure to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  In  aquatic  Puddleology,  the  bub- 
bles and  the  "commotion"  they  produce,  are  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  gas  that  is  disengaged.  In  aerial  Puddleology  accord- 
ing to  the  theory,  the  "commotion"'  and  its  effects  are  propor- 
tionate to  the  quantity  of  air  heated,  and  the  extent  of  the  heat- 
ing. 

Reader,  that  fundamental  theory  and  all  its  associated  and 
special  theories  are  baseless  and  untrue.  The  atmosphere  is 
systematically  ORGANIZED,  with  general  and  special  organizations, 
and  from  their  operation  and  laws  all  the  phenomena  result.  Mete- 
orology is  a  science,  but  not  the  science  you  are  taught. 

To  show  that  this  is  so,  and  also  the  truth  and  justice  of  all  the 
preceding  statements  of  this  introduction,  I  will  anticipate,  and 
allude  to  a  few  facts  taken  from  the  mass  of  like  tenor  to  be  found 
in  the  text.  I  ask  for  them  your  candid  attention. 

I.  The  ascensive  force  of  confined  heated  air,  when  raised  to  a 
temperature  of  100°  above  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  is  but 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll 

about  ^  of  an  ounce  to  the  cubic  foot.  This,  as  shown  at  page 
150,  was  the  ascertained  result  of  the  experiments  of  the  Mont- 
golfiers  in  their  ascensions  with  balloons  containing  heated  air. 
It  is  the  rule  given  by  Mr.  Wise  in  his  "  History  and  Practice  of 
Aeronautics,"  and  substantially  the  result  of  my  own  experiments 
with  an  upright  tin  box,  seven  feet  long  and  one  foot  square,  open 
at  the  bottom  and  raised  on  legs,  with  an  angular  thermometer  in- 
serted into  it  through  an  aperture,  and  the  box,  covered  alternately 
by  thin  pieces  of  pasteboard  of  different  weights, — the  contained 
air  being  heated  by  kerosene  lamps  placed  beneath  and  in  it.  If 
there  be  not  that  contrast  of  temperature  between  the  confined 
and  surrounding  air,  there  will  not  be  that  extent  of  force — for 
the  force  is  proportionate  to  the  contrast.  It  is  obvious  at  a 
glance,  that  ihis  force  is  utterly  inadequate  to  produce  any  of  the 
claimed  effects,  and  this  is  the  ascensive  force  of  confined  air.  Un- 
confined  air  is  subject  to  the  laws  of  diffusion  and  expansion,  and 
its  force  is  very  much  less  and  comparatively  innnitessimal.  It 
will  not  lift  a /evolving  paper  toy,  which  is  suspended  above  the 
hot  stove,  from  the  pivot  on  which  it  revolves.  In  view  of  these 
facts,  there  cannot  be  a  grosser  absurdity  than  to  attribute  the 
gale,  the  storm,  or  the  hurricane,  or  any  of  the  atmospheric  phe- 
nomena to  such  an  infinitesimal  force. 

II.  Over  and  upon  an  area  of  about  one  thousand  miles  in  ex- 
tent, either  way,  in  the  tropics  to  the  eastward  of  the  Windward 
Islands  of  the  West  Indies,  the  temperature  of  the  air  ranges  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  early  fall  at  about  82°,  and  the  water  from  80° 
to  82° ;  and  over  and  upon  that  area,  and  generally  near  the 
center  of  it,  east  of  the  Windward  Islands,  nearly  all  the  violent 
hurricanes  which  devastate  the  north  Atlantic,  and  our  own  coast, 
originate.  (See  the  chart  of  Mr.  Redfield  on  page  66.)  When 
they  commence  they  are  small,  never  probably  exceeding  fifty 
miles  in  diameter,  and  they  widen  and  enlarge  as  they  progress  to 
the  Northwest  and  curve  to  the  Northeast.  (See  figure  19  on 
page  67.)  Between  the  temperature  of  the  air  where  they  origi- 
nate, and  that  which  adjoins  them  when  they  commence,  there 
cannot  be  any  appreciable  contrast,  or  any  a^censive  force  in 


VIII  INTRODUCTION. 

operation.  The  same  fact  is  observable  in  our  own  country.  In 
May,  1860,  a  destructive  hurricane,  forty  miles  wide,  formed  in 
and  sped  up  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  at  the  rate  of  seventy  miles 
an  hour,  destroying  a  great  amount  of  property,  and  where  it 
commenced,  and  along  by  the  side  of  its  path,  there  was  no  con- 
trast of  temperature — absolutely  none,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
air  nowhere  exceeded  76°,  or  that  of  the  earth  60°.  (The  record 
of  that  hurricane  will  be  found  on  pages  69-77.)  It  is  incontro- 
vertibly  true,  therefore,  that  the  most  violent  storms  and  hurri- 
canes commence  and  progress  where  there  is  no  contrast  of  tem- 
perature to  create  an  ascensive  force,  and  no  such  force  can  pos- 
sibly be  in  operation. 

III.  "Winter  storms,  precisely  like   our  winter  snow  storms  in 
every  element  and  characteristic,   are  found  high  up  within  the 
Arctic  circle,  in  mid-winter,  where  the   earth  and  sea  are  locked 
up  by  frost  and  covered  with  snow,  where  the  sun  has  not  shone 
at  all  for  weeks  and  the  thermometer  ranges  in  fair  weather  at 
from  30°  to  40°  below  zero,  and  is  not  above  zero^  (except  when 
it  moderates  to  storm,)  within  1,000  miles  of  the  locality.     (The 
record  of  two  such  storms  will  be  found  on  page  195.)     No  pos- 
sible ascensive  force  of  heated  air  could   create  such  a  storm  or 
continue  it  till  it  arrived  there. 

IV.  The  trade  winds  of  the  tropics  on  the  summer  side  of  the 
central  belt  of  rains,  all  around  the  earth,  do  not  always  blow,  as 
assumed  by  Halley  and  taught  by  Meteorologists,  from  colder  to 
warmer  surfaces,  but  on  the  contrary,  on  the  summer  side  of  the 
belt  of  rains,  from   warmer,  and  in   many  places   very  hot  ones, 
toward  and  over  those  which  are  much  cooler.     In  our  summer 
the  Northeast  trades  blow  from  the  range  of  deserts  which  extend 
from   Northwestern   India  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  011  which 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  at  mid-day  ranges  from  130°  to  160°, 
and  the  air,  in  the  shade,  from  112°  to  115°,  toward  and  over  sur- 
faces where  neither  the  earth,  the  air,  or  the  water,  rise  above 
84°.     This  fact  is  also  incontrovertibly  shown  in  the  text,  and  is 
utterly  inconsistent  with  the  persistently  taught  Halley  theory. 

V.  The  tornado  is   the  most  violent  of  the  "  commotions,"  as 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

Meteorologists  term  them.  The  force  exerted  by  one  described 
by  Professor  Stoddard,  was  estimated  by  him  to  be  equal  to  the 
force  of  a  body  of  air  moving  with  a  velocity  of  340  miles  per 
hour ;  and  that  of  another,  described  by  Professor  Loomis,  was 
estimated  by  him  to  be  equal  to  a  body  of  air  moving  at  the  rate 
of  682  miles  per  hour.  Professor  Henry,  in  his  Patent  Report 
Essays,  and  his  Springfield  lecture,  attributed  this  "  commotion," 
as  he  termed  it,  to  an  unstable  or  tottering  equilibrium  of  the  sur- ' 
face  atmosphere,  caused  by  an  abnormal  contrast  of  temperature 
between  the  tipper  and  lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  the  for- 
mer being  colder,  and  the  latter  warmer  than  usual — which  un- 
stable equilibrium  causes  a  narrow  portion,  coming  in,  contact 
"with  a  heated  spot  or  slight  elevation,"  to  rise,  the  ascent  caus- 
ing condensation,  and  the  liberation  of  heat  and  the  further  heat- 
ing of  the  air,  whereby  the  ascent  of  the  mass  is  continued.  He 
made  no  attempt  to  support  the  assumption  by  evidence,  and  its 
absurdity  is  apparent.  The  extraordinary  and  awful  violence  at 
the  surface  of  .the  earth,  he  attributed  to  the  momentum  caused 
by  the  "continued  action  of  the  impelling  force,"  which  he  at- 
tempted to  illustrate  by  the  effect  of  a  continued  blast  upon  the 
arrow  in  an  air-gun  The  assumed  impelling  force  is  compounded 
of  "tottering  equilibrium"  and  the  heat  of  a  heated  spot,  or  the 
trip  of  a  slight  elevation,  and  as  they  must  act  from  instant  to  in- 
stant upon  different  and  successive  portions  of  air,  the  parallel 
between  their  action  and  that  of  the  continuing  blast  upon  the 
same  confined  arrow  utterly  fails.  The  same  want  of  parallelism 
would  exist  if  the  acquisition  of  momentum  was  attributed  to  the 
ascent  of  the  air  heated  by  condensation,  for  the  action  of  the 
force  must  be  constantly  changed  to  new  portions  of  air.  More- 
over, the  tornado  of  the  land  and  the  water-spout  of  the  sea  are 
confessedly  identical  in  their  nature  and  cause,  and  there  is  no 
heatea  spot  or  slight  elevation  at  sea.  I  understood  Professor 
Loomis  to  endorse  this  theory  at  Springfield,  but  in  his  recent 
treatise  he  attributes  the  tornado  to  the  formation  of  an  eddy  in 
the  inblowing  wind  of  a  storm.  How  the  wind,  blowing  in  at  the 
rate  of  30  or  40  miles  an  hour,  can  create  an  eddy  in  which  the 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

air  will  move  at  the  rate  of  682  miles  an  hour,  he  does  not  and 
cannot  say.  These  theories  agree  in  assuming  that  the  tornado 
commences  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  are  alike  absurd  on 
their  face  and  demonstrably  untrue. 

The  tornado  and  water-spout  do  not  commence  at  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  but  at  the  base  of  an  overlying  cloud,  and  extend  thence 
doivnward  to  the  earth,  and  withdraw  upward  again  when  spent 
— ending  at  the  cloud,  which  is  never  perforated.  This  also  is  in- 
controvertible/ true,  and  disposes  of  "  tottering  equilibrium "  and 
"  eddy."  The  reader  will  find  the  evidence  of  its  truth  in  cases 
cited  on  pages  309  to  337  of  the  text.  Every  reliable  statement 
relative  to  the  inception  of  a  tornado  which  I  have  seen,  has  been 
of  a  similar  tenor  to  those  there  copied.  This  fundamental  fact 
is  not  only  fatal  to  their  theories  respecting  the  tornado,  but  to 
the  calorific  theory. 

VI.  The  only  other  fact  to  which  I  will  allude  in  this  introduc- 
tion, is  of  the  most  conclusive  nature  possible.  It  is  that  obser- 
vation shows,  and  every  one  may  see  for  himself,  that  no  such 
ascent  ever  takes  place.  Nothing  could  be  more  readily  seen  if  it 
in  fact  occurred. 

The  atmosphere  is  divided  into  strata,  or  stories,  by  the  upper 
or  counter  trade  current,  and  each  of  the  strata  has  its  particular 
kind  of  clouds,  which  are  peculiar  in  appearance  and  function. 
This  the  reader  will  find  fully  developed  in  the  second  Chapter. 
The  scud  or  peculiar  clouds  of  the  surface  story  never  rise  under 
any  circumstances  into  the  other  stories.  Of  this  truth  any  per- 
son who  will  may  satisfy  himself  by  a  half  dozen  glances  upward 
every  day  for  a  few  months.  I  have  watched  their  course  for 
fifty  years,  often  getting  up  several  times  in  a  night  to  watch  a 
storm,  and  I  KNOW  the  fact  to  be  so.  In  the  £i  Philosophy  of  the 
Wea  her"  it  was  stated  that  no  such  ascent  had  been  discovered 
during  an  observation  of  thirty  years,  and  I  could  fill  pages  with 
affidavits  of  intelligent  men  who,  since  that  publication,  have 
watched  with  like  result,  but  it  cannot  be  necessary.  No  man, 
not  even  "Mr.  Espy,  pretends  to  have  ever  seen  such  an  ascent  during 
a  storm,  and  every  man  may  see,  if  he  will,  that  it  never  exists. 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

Mr.  Espy  says  that  in  some  instances  he  has  pointed  out  to 
others  an  inblovving  wind  beneath  an  approaching  storm,  and  an 
outspreading  of  the  cirrus  in  a  different  direction  above,  but  he 
does  not  pretend  to  have  seen  such  inblowing  wind  ascend,  arid 
the  blowing  of  the  wind,  and  the  spreading  out  of  the  cirrus,  are 
perfectly  distinct  and  independent  operations. 

Now  reader,  making  every  reasonable  allowance  for  pride  of 
opinion  and  prejudice,  I  must  believe  that  no  man,  who  is  honest 
with  himself,  can  resist  the  logic  of  these  facts ;  whether  considered 
separately,  or  collectively,  or  in  connection  with  other  facts,  of 
like  tenor  and  equal  force,  which  may  be  found  in  the  text,  or 
with  the  mass  of  facts  which  show  the  falsity  of  the  theories,  by 
showing  that  the  atmosphere  is  organized,  and  that  all  the  phe- 
nomena result  from  the  operation  of  its  general  and  special  orga- 
nizations and  their  laws. 

The  table  of  contents  discloses  the  plan  of  the  work,  but  a 
concise  statement  of  it,  and  the  purpose  and  connection  of  the 
different  chapters,  in  this  place,  will  assist  the  reader  to  compre- 
hend them. 

Assuming  the  received  view  of  meteorologists,  that  all  the  at- 
mospheric phenomena  are  the  result  of  mechanical  "commotions" 
in  an  aerial  ocean,  produced  at  the  bottom  by  the  action  of  the 
sun's  rays  in  heating  the  earth  and  atmosphere  and  causing  the 
latter  to  rise,  to  be  demonstrably  incorrect ;  and  that  the  atmos- 
phere is  systematically  organized,  with  general  and  special  organ- 
izations, which  produce  the  various  states  and  phenomena,  I  pro- 
ceed to  state,  in  anticipation,  three  propositions,  as  the  result  of 
rigid  induction  from  the  facts  which  will  be'  presented. 

First,  That  the  normal  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  tem- 
perate zones,  is  calm,  fair  weather. 

Second,  That  the  changes  from  that  state,  and  all  the  states  and 
changes  constituting  the  weather,  are  produced  by  the  passage 
of  successive  organizations  commonly  called  storms,  but  which, 
for  reasons  stated  in  the  text,  I  term  "  CONDITIONS." 

Third,  That  the  CONDITIONS  result  from  the  operation  of  a 
great,  central,  permanent  organization,  and  originate  in  it,  or  in 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

an  atmospheric  current  called  the  counter,  or  upper  trade,  which 
is  produced  by  and  sent  forth  from  that  central  organization,  out 
over  the  temperate  zones. 

I  then  proceed  to  show  that  there  are  seven  alternating  and 
changing  states  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  describe  them,  and  illus- 
trate the  manner  in  which  they  are  produced,  by  a  history  and 
description  of  two  passing  CONDITIONS, — one,  a  summer  belt  of 
showers, — the  other,  an  autumn  southeast  storm. 

The  plan  of  the  work  then,  as  developed  in  the  first  chapter,  is : 
first,  to  examine  and  fully  understand  the  states  of  the  atmosphere 
and  their  changes,  constituting  the  weather  ;  second,  to  trace  those 
states  and  changes  to  the  passing  CONDITIONS,  and  show  the  man- 
ner in  which  those  conditions  produce  them  ;  third,  to  analyze  and 
examine  the  passing  conditions,  and  ascertain  their  elements,  mode 
of  operation,  and  effects ;  and  fourth,  to  ascertain  the  place  and 
manner  in  which  those  conditions  are  formed  and  organized  in,  01 
by  the  influence  of  the  permanent,  central,  organized  condition, 
and  the  paths  they  pursue ;  finally,  to  analyze  and  examine  that 
central  condition,  its  organization,  mode  of  operation  and  effects, 
and  thus,  step  by  step,  commencing  with  the  simple  states,  and 
ascending  to  the  great,  central,  fundamental  condition,  develop 
the  atmospheric  system,  and  the  modes  of  operation  by  which  the 
states  and  phenomena  constituting  the  weather,  are  produced. 

The  second  chapter  is  digressive,  in  order  to  develop  the  fact 
that  the  atmosphere  consists  of  strata  or  stories;  that  they  are 
constituted  by  the  interposition  of  the  equatorial  current,  or  upper 
trade,  proceeding  from  the  central  condition ;  that  the  clouds  of 
the  different  stories  differ  in  function  as  well  as  inform;  and  to 
give  a  clear  and  explicit  description  of  the  clouds  of  the  different 
stories,  and  their  distinguishing  characteristics  and  functions,  with 
a  view  to  a  correct  analysis  and  understanding  of  the  various 
conditions. 

In  the  third  chapter  I  return  from  the  digression  to  an  analyti- 
cal examination  of  the  conditions  and  a.  classification  of  them,  so 
far  as  such  classification  is  possible,  and  a  description  of  their  dis- 
tinctive characteristics,  and  the  localities  where  one  or  the  other 
are  generally  to  be  found. 


INTRODUCTION.  Xlll 

The  fourth  chapter,  in  continuation,  is  mainly  devoted  to  an 
examination  of  the  paths  which  the  conditions  pursue  in  passing 
over  this  continent,  and  to  show  that  there  are  three  distinct  and 
diverse  systems ;  that  each  system  has  its  focal  path ;  that  those 
focal  paths  change  their  location  with  the  seasons,  and  that  the 
climatology  of  the  country,  m  all  its  varying  characteristics,  re- 
sults from  these  diverse  systems  and  the  changes  of  their  paths. 
In  that  chapter  I  have  further  examined,  analytically  and  logical- 
ly, the  movements  and  mode  of  operation  of  the.  passing  condi- 
tions, and  the  manner  in  which  they  produce  the  states  of  the 
atmosphere,  (including  special  and  prevalent  winds,  and  rainy 
and  dry  seasons,)  in  different  localities,  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  That  chapter  contains  a  key  for  the  explanation  of  every 
climatological  fact  peculiar  to  any  section  of  the  continent. 

Having  thus  fully  analyzed  and  examined  the  conditions  pecu- 
liar to  the  temperate  zones,  their  elements,  organization,  and  mode 
of  operation  in  producing  the  states,  I  next  proceed,  in  chapter 
fifth,  to  a  critical  examination  of  the  permanent,  fundamental, 
central  condition,  and  its  elements,  organization,  mode  of  opera- 
tion, and  effects.  That  examination  is  too  extended  to  admit  of 
even  a  brief  synopsis  here.  The  chapter  ends  with  a  resume  of 
all  the  facts  and  inductions  contained  in  it. 

In  the  sixth  chapter  I  return  to  the  temperate  zone,  and  to  a 
more  critical  examination  of  its  climatological  peculiarities,  espe- 
cially its  irregularities,  and  the  cycles  of  drouth  and  drench,  and 
of  cold  and  hot  seasons,  and  endeavor  to  trace  them  to  their 
cause. 

After  having  thus  developed,  as  matter  of"  fact,  the  atmos- 
pheric system,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  various  phenomena 
are  produced,  I  proceed,  in  the  seventh  chapter,  to  deduce  and 
consider  the  elements  of  prognostication,  by  which  an  isolated 
observer  can  forecast  the  weather.  This  chapter  is  also  extended 
and  full,  and  a  synopsis  of  it  cannot  be  given.  It  is  practical  and 
instructive,  as  well  as  logical  beyond  anything  to  be  found  in  our 
language,  or  any  other.  The  reader  should  read  carefully  the 
synopsis  of  the  chapter  in  the  table  of  contents,  and  at  its  head, 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

and  possess  himself  of  the  salient  points.  If  he  has  fully  com- 
prehended the  developments  of  the  previous  chapters,  he  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  means  at  our  command 
for  prognosticating  the  weather,  as  fully  described  in  that  impor- 
tant chapter. 

In  the  eighth  and  last  chapter,  I  have  inquired,  analytically, 
into  the  laws  of  the  conditions,  and  the  motive  force  of  the  sys- 
ti'in.  This  chapter,  also,  is  too  full  and  extended  to  admit  of 
synopsis  here. 

From  this  brief  outline,  and  a  careful  reading  of  the  table  of 
contents,  the  reader  will  learn  the  plan  of  the  work,  and  the 
analytical  and  logical  character  of  the  development,  and  be  ena- 
bled to  understand  and  appreciate  it  as  he  proceeds. 

I  have  not  deemed  it  important  to  preface  the  work  with  any 
of  the  minor  details  of  the  science.  All  that  are  of  material  con- 
sequence will  come  in  view,  and  be  explained  appropriately  as 
we  proceed. 

There  is  one  matter,  however,  that  should  be  fully  understood, 
and  that  is,  that  the  winds  are  uniformly  named  according  to  the 
points  of  the  compass  from  or  through  which  they  blow.  The 
following  figure  represents  the  mariner's  compass.  If  the  reader 
will  imagine  that  he  stands  in  the  center  of  the  card,  that  the 
wind  is  blowing  toward  him,  and  observe  ftorn  or  through  what 
point  it  passes  to  reach  him,  lie  will  know  why  the  winds  are 
described  as  they  are,  and  have  no  difficulty  thereafter. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Definition  of  the  weather — Its  normal  state  in  the  temperate  zones,  still, 
clear,  and  dry — All  the  other  states  result  from  organized  conditions — 
The  conditions  the  result  of  a  general  organization — All  together  con- 
stituting an  atmospheric  system.  The  conditions  are  organized — Con- 
stitute a  series — are  successive — varied — within  five  miles  of  the  earth, 
and  move  or  pass  over  it.  The  different  states  produced  by  the  different 
parts  as  they  pass.  Description  of  the  particular  states — weight — tem- 
perature— wind — cloudiness — humidity — precipitation — electrical  state. 
History  and  description  of  a  belt  of  showers  in  August-  Manner  in 
which  it  produced  the  changes  of  state.  Description  of  an  autumn  S 
E.  condition.  Manner  in  which  it  produced  the  states.  Various  other 
facts  bearing  upon  the  subject.  ....  9-29 

CHAPTER   II. 

The  stories  of  the  Atmosphere.  Clouds  of  the  different  stories — different 
character  and  function  Three  of  those  stories  constituted  by  the  inter- 
position of  the  upper  counter  trade.  Course  of  that  trade — it  varies  in 
quantity  and  altitude — constitutes  the  middle  story — rate  of  progress — 
open  to  observation.  Three  kinds  of  cloud  in  the  first  or  surface  story, 
mist,  scud  and  fog.  Mist  common  to  all  the  stories.  Description  of  fog 
— low  fog — high  fog — Scud  of  great  practical  importance.  Nomencla- 
ture of  Howard — does  not  include  scud.  His  description  founded  on 
form  and  structure  alone  Location,  function,  and  use  not  regarded. 
Howard's  descriptions  for  that  reason  imperfect.  Nimbus  not  a  dis- 
tinct form  and  should  be  discarded.  Scud  form  and  float  in  the  surface 
winds.  Characteristics  of  the  N.  W.  scud — characteristics  of  the  N.  E. 
scud — of  the  S.  E.  scud — of  the  S.  W.  scud — Clouds  of  the  second  story 
— All  of  the  stratus  forms.  Three  forms  of  stratus,  viz  :  Cirro-stratus, 
cumulo-stratus,  and  stratus.  Descriptions  of  them — constitute  the  rain- 
bearing  clouds.  A  single  form  of  cloud  known  to  the  upper  story,  the 
cirrus.  Description  of  the  cirrus.  ....  30-49 


VII  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   III. 

Recur  to  Springfield  condition  of  Aug.  1859 — Analysis  of  it — was  an  or- 
ganized condition — composed  of  three  strata  of  cloud  and  two  lateral 
winds,  all  connected  and  moving  together — extent  of  the  several  parts 
— manner  in  which  they  operated — Did  not  contain  any  vortex — south- 
erly wind  blew  entirely  across  under  the  body  of  it — Facts  in  relation 
to  the  other  conditions  as  a  class — Rain-bearing  clouds  lie  in  parallel 
bands — parallel  with  the  axis — sometimes  the  cirrus  also — sometimes  the 
scud — Other  facts  in  relation  to  this  class  of  conditions — wind  the  strong- 
est which  blows  from  the  surface  most  moist.  More  common  than  any 
other  class  of  conditions.  Their  occurrence  in  Bermuda,  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  A  succes- 
sion of  them  met  between  the  tropics  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Have 
all  the  characteristics  in  that  hemisphere  that  they  have  in  this.  North- 
east storms — most  common  east  of  the  Alleghanies  in  this  country — not 
known  on  the  Pacific  coast — rare  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  De- 
scription of  them — manner  in  which  the  winds  change  in  them.  Irregu- 
lar conditions.  Hurricanes — description  of  them — places  where  most 
frequent — most  common  in  West  Indies — sometimes  occur  upon  land 
in  this  country.  Description  of  one.  Description  of  tornado.  50-84 

CHAPTER  IV 

OF  THE  SYSTEMS  OF  CONDITIONS  ON  THE  CONTINENT  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA  AND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Three  distinct  and  diverse  systems  of  conditions  in  the  United  States, 
passing  over  the  continent  in  three  distinct  and  different  paths.  The 
first,  the  Atlantic  system.  Its  conditions  originate  upon  the  Atlantic  or 
its  connected  seas  and  gulfs,  or  in  the  counter  trade  they  furnish — move 
N.W.  and  N.  and  enter  upon  the  southwestern  and  southern  states — 
curve  thence  and  move  to  the  northeast.  The  second  originates  upon  the 
Pacific,  moves  to  the  N.E.  on  to  and  over  the  coast  and  continent. 
The  third,  a  part  of  the  tropical  belt  of  rain  which  covers  the  Gulf 
coast,  Southern  Mexico,  and  Central  America  in  midsummer.  Direc- 
tion in  which  the  different  systems  move.  The  supply  of  rain  depends 
upon  these  conditions — Intermediate  between  these  systems,  an  arid 
area — not  all  or  entirely  a  desert — all  parts  of  it  reached  by  one  or  the 
other  of  the  systems,  but  temporarily — that  area  scantily  supplied  with 
rain.  These  systems  evidence  of  law,  order,  and  organization.  All 
peculiarities  in  our  climatology  dependent  upon  them.  Developed 
thirteen  years  ago  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  "Weather" — Not  since  de- 
nied, but  ignored  by  scientists — accepted  and  adopted  by  practical  men 


CONTENTS.  Viii 

— Focal  paths  of  the  conditions  and  what  is  meant  by  them.  Their  sit- 
uation in  winter  in  the  Atlantic  system.  Rain-fall  under  and  on  either 
side  of  the  focal  path — Situation  of  the  Atlantic  focal  path  in  February, 
1854.  Temperature  under  and  on  either  side  of  it — Winds  under  and 
on  either  side  of  it.  "Weather  south  of  the  focal  path,  warm. — The 
same  thing  true  in  respect  to  the  single  conditions.  Situation  of  the 
focal  path  in  March,  1854.  Extension  N.W.  and  N. — Situation  of  the 
focal  path  in  April — Had  extended  still  further  W.,  N.W.,  and  N. — Sit- 
uation in  May  and  June — Rapidly  extending  W.,  N.W.,  and  N.— con- 
forming to  its  annual  progress  but  more  rapid  and  concentrated  than 
usual,  leaving  an  unusual  drought  behind  it.  Situation  in  July  and 
August — unusual  extension  and  concentration  W.  and  N.W.  and  N. — 
Area  of  the  consequent  remarkable  drought — Descent  of  the  focal  path 
again  in  autumn  and  winter.  Extension  less  regular  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  than  in  the  interior — Annual  rain-fall  upon  the  eastern  states,  with 
chart — Effect  of  this  annual  ascent  and  descent  of  the  focal  path  on  our 
climatology — causes  rainy  and  dry  seasons  at  the  different  points.  Af- 
fects the  temperature — Produces  sudden  changes — Explains  the  reason 
why  consumptives  go  to  Minnesota — Why  storms  appear  at  the  south- 
west in  winter  and  showers  at  the  northwest  in  summer — Explains  the 
general  winds.  Prevalent  winds  in  Florida — Prevalent  winds  in  east- 
ern Arkansas — in  the  Indian  Territory — in  Tennessee — in  the  N.W. 
and  northern  states — in  New  England — Explains  why  the  winds  prevail 
from  the  intermediate  instead  of  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  Chart 
of  the  isothermal  lines  for  the  winter — their  descent  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  in  winter,  below  the  40th  parallel.  Their  ascent  at  the  same  time 
above  the  40th  parallel — Explanation  of  anomalies — Owing  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  focal  paths  of  the  two  systems  at  that  time.  Climatology 
of  the  Pacific  states — more  simple,  but  has  the  same  elements.  Its  con- 
ditions move  from  the  Pacific  in  a  northeasterly  direction — Have  a  focal 
path  like  those  of  the  Atlantic  system — that  path  has  a  similar  transit 
to  the  north  in  summer — that  transit  produces  a  like  effect  upon  the  tern, 
perature — produces  like  rainy  and  dry  seasons — has  similar  attendant 
and  prevalent  winds.  The  Pacific  conditions  are  less  intense — the  phe- 
nomena less  violent  and  more  uniform — Description  of  the  third  system 
of  conditions — Reaches  the  Gulf  coast  and  Central  America  in  summer 
only — movement  of  the  conditions  in  that  system,  and  their  character. 
Summer  rain-fall  under  that  system.  .  .  .  85-115 


IX  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   V. 

THE  GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  OF   THE  ATMOSPHERIC 

SYSTEM. 

Origin  of  a  class  of  conditions  in  the  central  zone — Central  belt  of  precip- 
itating cloud — encircles  the  earth — Mean  Avidth  about  500  miles — chart 
of  it  and  its  connections — Situation  in  August,  north  of  the  equator — 
Polar  zones  of  rain  connected  with  it — Situation  of  polar  zones  in  Au- 
gust— On  each  side  of  the  central  belt  an  area  covered  by  dry  trade-wind 
called  N.E.  and  S.E.  trades — these  areas  also  surround  the  earth.  The 
central  belt  of  cloud  and  rain,  the  two  areas  of  dry  trade-wind  and  the 
two  polar  zones  of  rain  make  five  permanent  and  connected  parts  of  a 
general  system. — All  as  a  connected  whole  have  a  northern  and  south- 
ern annual  transit — All  commeace  their  movement  together  to  the  south 
about  the  first  of  August,  and  reach  their  southern  position  about  the 
first  of  February — Chart  showing  the  position  in  February  of  the  five 
parts,  to  wit :  the  central  belt,  the  two  trade-M'ind  zones,  and  the  two 
polar  zones — The  connected  whole  commences  its  northern  transit  early 
in  February,  and  reaches  its  northern  position  in  August.  This  or- 
ganized whole  to  be  particularly  examined.  Some  preliminiary  facts  to 
be  considered.  Transit  more  extended  north  and  south  some  years 
than  others — Some  sections  which  are  not  covered  by  either  zone  of  rains 
during  the  transit — such  sections  constitute  a  class  of  deserts — Such  as 
New  Holland  and  Kalahari  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere — Arabia, 
Egypt,  Sahara,  Colorado,  &c.,  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere — There 
arc  also  arid  areas  in  the  polar  zones — Principal  rivers  of  Africa  and  South 
America  rise  under  the  central  belt  of  rains.  Central  belt  passes  over 
some  places  twice  a  year — Monsoons.  Examination  of  the  great  central 
condition — Constituted  by  or  composed  of  a  central  belt  of  condensation 
and  two  wings  of  winds,  the  trades — Analagous  in  this  respect  to  the 
conditions  of  the  polar  zones — Analagous  also  in  all  its  essential  elements. 
Critical  examination  of  its  elements.  Examination  of  the  trade-winds 
and  their  character.  Examination  of  the  central  belt  of  condensation 
and  its  character — Contains  no  vortex — Theory  that  it  does,  a  mere 
assumption — originally  made  by  Halley  in  1686 — never  proved  by  any 
direct  evidence,  nor  capable  of  such  proof — Every  fact  in  nature  bear- 
ing upon  it,  adverse  to  it — earth,  air,  and  water  under  the  belt  of  rain 
colder  than  in  the  trades  everywhere — fundamental  base  of  the  theory 
therefore  untrue.  Review  of  evidence  on  the  point.  Fact  undeniable, 
undenied,  yet  not  regarded. — Coast  wind  of  California,  not  an  excep- 
tion— rthat  wind  does  not  reach  the  valleys  which  are  assumed  to  cause  it. 
The  air  as  heated  in  the  atmosphere  has  not  the  ascensive  force  attrib- 
uted to  it — review  of  the  evidence  on  this  point — impossible  therefore  that 


CONTENTS.  x 

it  should  produce  a  vortex.  Description  of  a  West  InJia  hurricane — 
originated  where  the  air  and  water  were  only  84° — ascensive  force  of 
unconfined  air  at  that  temperature  does  not  exceed  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
to  the  square  foot — utterly  impossible  that  it  should  produce  any  storms. 
All  attempts  to  prove  the  existence  of  such  a  vortex,  failures — Review 
of 'evidence  on  that  point.  Examination  of  the  nature  of  the  central 
condition,  as  disclosed  by  active  and  positive  observation — Review  of 
evidence  on  that  point.  Observations  of  Squier  in  Nicaraugua — Fend- 
ler  in  Venezuela — Herndon  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon — Gibbon  upon 
the  Andes — Livingston  in  South  Africa — Du  Chaillu  in  Equatorial 
Africa — Barth  in  North  Africa — all  concur  to  prove  the  theory  of  Halley 
untrue.  Critical  examination  of  the  belt  continued — has  an  upper  layer 
of  cirrus — a  second  layer  of  stratus  or  cumulo-stratus — beneath  them 
the  scud  of  the  trade-winds  These  three  elements  with  the  squalls  and 
slant  winds  at  the  surface  constitute  the  organized  central  belt — Trades 
pass  each  other  in  this  belt — Review  of  the  evidence  of  it  and  of  the  ob- 
jections made  to  it — after  passing,  continue  in  the  same  general  direction 
— facts  pointing  in  a  different  direction  are  exceptions.  Review  of  evi- 
dence on  this  point  Resume  of  the  facts  contained  in  the  chapter. 

117-192 

CHAPTER   VI. 

Re-statement  of  the  fact  that  the  normal  or  natural  state  of  the  polar  zones 
is  dry,  fair  weather,  and  that  they  have  no  independent  arrangement  for 
a  supply  of  moisture — Heat,  as  a  mechanical  agent,  does  not  do  it — It  is 
effected  by  passing  conditions  which  originate  in,  or  result  from,  the  fun- 
damental, tropical  condition  Some  conditions,  which  originate  in  the 
central  belt,  and  others  which  originate  in  the  polar  zones,  reach  the  Arc- 
tic Circles,  retaining  all  their  essential  elements — copy  from  Dr.  Kane's 
record  during  the  absence  of  the  sun,  to  prove  it  Analysis  of  two  re- 
corded storms.  Halley's  theory  requires  the  belief  that  the  sun  creates 
storms  where  there  is  no  sunshine,  and  American  Meteorologists  hold 
and  teach  the  absurdity — practical  men,  whose  business  trains  them 
in  the  logic  of  cause  and  effect,  know  better.  Storms  met  with  by 
Dr.  Kane  probably  originated  upon  the  Pacific.  Storms  originate  in 
the  polar  zones,  where  there  is  a  sufficient  volume  of  upper  trade 
— where  there  is  not  sufficient  volume,  stormy  conditions  do  not  occur. 
Recapitulation  of  the  proof  furnished  by  the  changes  which  occur  in  our 
own  country.  The  irregularities  of  the  central  condition  produce  irreg- 
ularities in  our  zone — One  of  the  principal  irregularities  is  drouth.  Four 
classes  of  drouth  attributable  to  such  irregular  action.  The  first  class 
occur  in  spring,  north  of  the  focal  path — occasioned  by  the  retarded 
progress  of  that  path  to  the  north — most  common  east  of  the  Alleghany 


XI  CONTENTS. 

Mountains  and  upon  the  northeastern  states.  Second  class  produced 
by  the  unusually  extended  transit  and  concentration  of  the  focal  path — 
this  class  are  south  of  that  path — Such  was  the  drouth  of  1854.  The 
third  class  are  meridianal — occur  in  the  interior  of  the  country — produced 
by  the  concentration  of  the  upper  trade  and  a  succession  of  conditions 
upon  the  Atlantic  coast — such  was  the  drouth  of  1867.  The  fourth 
class  are  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  only — occasioned  by  an  extension  of 
the  outer  limits  of  the  N.E.  trades — occur  in  July  and  August  only. 
Limited  and  local  drouths — tendency  to  them  in  certain  localities — 
northern  part  of  the  Gulf  States — south  coast  of  New  England — Config- 
uration sometimes  produces  them — also  the  passage  of  successive  belts 
of  showers  in  the  morning — Such  belts,  if  of  weak  intensity,  do  not 
precipitate  where  they  are  vertical  in  the  morning — Instances  of  irreg- 
ular precipitation.  Want  of  data  for  a  thorough  elucidation  of  drouths 
— a  history  of  them  by  Mr.  Flint,  Secretary  of  Board  of  Agriculture, 
Massachusetts.  Examination  of  that  history.  Are  there  any  facts 
which  will  guide  us  to  a  knowledge  of  these  irregularities  ?  Some  of 
them  connected  with  spots  upon  the  sun.  Description  of  spots  and 
of  Schwabe's  investigation — tables  and  observations  given  by  him — not 
perfect  or  satisfactory — nevertheless  the  connection  with  the  irregular- 
ities of  the  system  apparent.  Comparison  of  the  table  of  spots  with  the 
transits  of  the  focal  paths  of  the  conditions — Effect  upon  the  mean  fall 
of  rain — effect  upon  temperature.  Extended  examination  of  the  subject 
in  various  localities  and  under  various  circumstances.  Examination  of 
facts  which  seem  to  militate  against  the  connection — properly  under- 
stood, the  facts  not  adverse,  because  consequent  upon  irregular  transits. 
Extended  examination  of  the  whole  subject.  Connection  between  the 
spots  and  the  irregular  action  of  the  whole  system.  Inquiry  whether 
there  are  any  other  forces  or  causes  which  affect  the  system.  Volcanic 
action — its  influence  probable.  Extended  examination  of  the  question. 
Influence  of  the  moon  upon  the  weather — popular  opinion  upon  the  sub- 
ject— such  an  opinion  requiring  careful  examination — no  such  influence 
can  be  traced,  upon  such  examination — no  facts  from  which  it  can  be 
analogically  or  philosophically  presumed.  .  .  193-23: 

CHAPTER   VII. 

PROGNOSTICATION. 

Consideration  of  the  question  how  far,  and  by  what  means  a  local,  isolated 
observer  can  prognosticate  or  forecast  the  weather.  Assuming  the  two 
first  fundamental  propositions  to  be  proved,  the  logical  inquiry  will  be, 
when  will  the  normal  state  be  disturbed  by  a  condition  and  its  changes, 
and  what  its  character  and  intensity.  Certainty  or  regularity  of  inter- 


CONTENTS. 

val  not  to  be  expected,  although  conditions  of  more  or  less  intensity  pass 
frequently — they  sometimes  pass  on  a  given  day  of  the  week,  for  several 
weeks  with  or  without  an  intervening  condition — no  certainty  as  to  the 
character  and  intensity  of  the  next  condition — nor  any  reliance  on  plane- 
tary influence, — only  reliance  upon  changes  of  state  produced  by  passing 
conditions.  Signs,  proverbs  and  maxims  not  founded  on  or  connected 
with  those  changes  of  state,  empirical  and  worthless.  The  inquiry  is  for 
prognostic  inferences  derivable  from  changes  of  state.  Certain  other 
elements  and  contingencies  to  be  considered,  viz  :  location  of  observer, 
season  of  the  year,  and  situation  of  the  year  in  the  decade.  Recapitu- 
lation of  the  changes  of  state  induced  by  the  conditions  from  which  prog- 
nostic inferences  are  to  be  drawn.  Weight  of  the  atmosphere,  how  meas- 
ured— various  instruments  examined.  Barometer  the  principal  one  to 
be  relied  on — its  indications — its  mean  elevation  generally  upon  the 
earth — difference  of  elevation  in  different  localities — mean  elevation  least 
where  conditions  are  most  frequent  and  intense.  Examination  of  the 
fact  in  relation  to  this  country.  Places  and  circumstances  under  which 
it  ranges  highest  and  lowest.  Allowance  to  be  made  for  elevations  above 
the  level  of  the  sea — rules  for  determining  that  allowance.  No  fair 
weather  standard  for  the  barometer — each  observer  must  fix  one  for  him- 
self— standard  must  vary  with  the  transits  of  the  focal  path  and  deduc- 
tion must  be  made  for  altitude.  Rules  for  fixing  such  standard — col- 
lection of  rules  used  in  England,  for  forecasting  weather  by  barometer 
— critical  examination  of  these  rules.  Prognostic  inferences  to  be  drawn 
from  temperature — before  northeasters —  before  belts  of  showers — in  re- 
lation to  the  probability  of  snow  or  rain.  Exceptional  warm  periods 
in  winter  without  passing  conditions — how  produced — thermometer  to 
be  consulted  in  reference  to  the  continuance  of  storms — Sudden  changes 
of  our  climate — their  magnitude  and  how  produced — importance  of 
forecasting  and  regarding  them.  Prognostic  inferences  to  be  drawn 
from  the  winds  and  their  changes.  Winds  not  felt  at  the  surface  discov- 
erable by  sounds  and  scud.  All  fresh,  earnest  winds  created  by  condi- 
tions— Importance  of  this  class  of  prognostic  inferences.  Prognostic  in- 
ferences drawn  from  clearness  or  cloudiness — their  character  and  impor- 
tance. Examination  of  the  maxims  founded  on  them.  Resume  of  the 
appearances  of  the  sky  from  which  prognostic  inferences  maybe  drawn. 
Prognostic  inferences  from  the  existence  of  humidity — Evaporation  and 
hygrometry — Devices  by  which  humidity  is  measured.  Contrast  between 
the  English  climate  and  ours,  in  relation  to  humidity.  Examination 
of  weather  signs  founded  on  humidity.  Prognostic  inferences  from  ram, 
hail,  and  snow — examination  of  weather  proverbs  in  relation  to  them. 
Rules  for  determining  whether  a  storm  will  precipitate  snow  or  rain. 
Prognostic  inferences  from  the  seventh  element  or  electric  state  of  the  at- 


Xlll  CONTENTS. 

mosphcrc.  Dr.  Jenner's  signs  of  rain — examination  of  those  signs  as 
founded  upon  the  electrical  influence  of  an  approaching  condition,  on 
men,  animals,  and  plants.  Examination  of  signs  and  proverbs  not  found- 
ed on  any  of  the  foregoing  seven  states — all  fallacies.  Review  of  some  of 
the  principal  points.  Importance  and  probability  of  the  use  of  the  tele- 
graph in  prognostication.  Other  material  points  reviewed.  Examina- 
tion of  the  question,  what  will  be  the  character  of  the  next  condition, 
and  how  to  forecast  that  character — also  the  question  what  will  be  its 
intensity,  and  how  that  question  can  be  answered.  Prognostic  inferences 
in  relation  to  the  continuance  of  the  conditions  and  how  they  "  clear 
off."  233-307 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

The  organization  and  motive  force  of  the  system  invisible — its  existence 
recognized  in  its  effects — a  knowledge  of  it  to  be  acquired  by  inference 
from  the  nature  of  the  organizations  and  their  actions.  Elements  of  the 
tornado  and  their  mode  of  operation — place  where  it  originates — manner 
of  formation  and  form — its  appearance  and  substance — its  apparent  man- 
ner of  action  in  the  air — its  action  and  mode  of  operation  in  contact  with 
the  earth — estimates  of  the  force  employed — various  descriptions  of  the 
power  of  that  force — operates  in  two  lateral  lines  or  currents.  The  right 
hand  current  crosses  the  center  in  advance  of  the  left  hand,  curves  back- 
wards and  ascends  over  it.  The  left  hand  current  curves  behind  the  other 
and  rises  over  it, — both  together  constituting  the  whirl  in  the  air.  These 
currents  thus  existing  and  operating,  constitute  the  law  of  the  tornado. 
This  law  of  the  small  is  also  the  law  of  the  great,  and  is  traceable  through 
all  the  varied  atmospheric  organizations — Traced  first  in  the  belts  of  show- 
ers and  in  elliptical  storms  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere — in  those  of  the 
Southern  Hemisphere — nearly  all  storms  of  that  Hemisphere  of  this  char- 
acter. Critical  examination  of  Col.  Reid's  chapter  on  the  "  Gales  of 
High  Southern  Latitudes  " — in  every  instance  he  purports  to  describe 
the  northern  half  of  the  gale — southern  half  of  a  revolving  gale  not  ex- 
perienced— all  the  gales  described  by  him,  were,  with  a  single  excep- 
tion, elliptical — that  exception  a  straight  line  southeaster,  corresponding 
to  our  straight  line  northeasters.  "  Ojo  "  of  the  Spaniards,  not  an  indi- 
cation of  the  center  of  the  storm — constituted  by  a  clear  interval  after 
the  storm  clouds  have  all  passed  by,  and  before  the  scud  of  the  fair 
weather  wind  obscure  the  sky.  The  same  kind  of  storm's  eye  visihle  with 
us,  at  least  ten  times  a  year, — never  seen  in  the  center  of  the  storm. — All 
the  descriptions  cited  by  Col.  Reid,  belonged  to  elliptical  storms  with  lat- 
eral winds — described  as  such  by  Mr.  Mildrum.  Extended  examination 
of  the  theories  of  Redfield  and  Espy.  Certain  amount  of  truth  in  both 


CONTENTS.  Xiv 

of  them.  Some  storms  elliptical  as  claimed  by  Espy — others  semi-revolv- 
ing as  claimed  by  Redtield — instances  and  illustrations  of  both.  Hur- 
ricane of  1821.  Hurricane  of  18G9.  Examination  of  the  views  of  Prof. 
Henry  as  promulgated  in  the  Patent  Office  Reports — those  views  crude 
and  untruthful.  Intolerance  and  persistency  of  meteorologists  in  rela- 
tion to  this  matter.  Return  to  the  inquiry  what  is  the  force.  Exam- 
ination of  the  group  of  the  diurnal  changes — instructive  but  not  conclu- 
sive. Must  find  a  force  that  originates  the  conditions  and  prescribes 
their  paths  unaffected  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  That  rotation  does 
not  control  or  affect  the  circulation  of  the  atmosphere — current  theories 
on  that  subject  all  fallacies.  But  one  such  force  known,  and  that  is  elec- 
tricity. General  view  of  that  agent  and  its  operations  or  phases.  Vari- 
ous propositions  and  illustrations,  showing  the  manner  in  which  it  ope- 
rates in  organizing  the  system  and  producing  the  varied  phenomena, 
and  in  that  connection  an  extended  examination  of  the  magnetism  of  the 
earth,  and  how  it  is  constituted.  Its  associated  currents  of  electricity,  and 
their  mode  of  operation.  Particular  examination  of  the  manner  in  which 
magnetism  is  diffused  over  the  earth,  affecting  climate,  disease,  and  the 
activity  and  energy  of  its  inhabitants.  Appeal  to  the  various  classes  of 
practical  men  to  aid  in  reforming  the  science  and  extending  the  truth. 

308-403 


THE  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM  AS  GOD  MADE  IT. 

CHAPTER    I. 

Definition  of  the  weather — Its  normal  state  in  the  temperate  zones,  still,  clear 
and  dr/ — All  the  states  which  are  a  departure  from  it,  result  from  organ- 
ized conditions — The  conditions  result  from  the  laws  of  a  general  organiza- 
tion— The  conditions  are  organized — Constitute  a  series— are  successive — 
are  varied — within  five  miles  of  the  earth,  and  move  or  pass  over  it — the  dif- 
ferent states  produced  by  the  different  parts  as  they  pass — Description  of 
the  particular  states — weight — temperature — wind — cloudiness — humidity 
— precipitation— electrical  state— History  and  description  of  a  belt  of  showers 
in  Aug'ust — manner  in  which  it  produced  the  changes  of  state — Descrip- 
tion of  an  autumn  S.  E.  condition— manner  in  which  it  produced  the  states 
— various  other  facts  bearing  upon  the  subject. 

THE  weather  is  defined  to  be  "the  state  of  the  atmosphere  with 
respect  to  heat  or  cold,  wetness  or  dryness,  calm  or  storm,  clear- 
ness or  cloudiness,  rain,  snow,  hail,  fog,  etc."  Thus  defined  it 
means  the  existing  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  several  partic- 
ulars named  in  any  particular  locality,  and  the  changes  which  are 
there  occurring,  or  which  may  occur,  from  one  state  to  another. 
A  separate  and  particular  description  of  these  states  is  not  impor- 
tant in  this  stage  of  our  inquiry,  for  we  are  all  more  or  less  familiar 
with  them,  and  they  will  be  often  under  consideration. 

The  normal  (regular)  state  of  the  weather  in  the  temperate 
zones,  and  of  cour?e  over  most  of  our  country,  when  undisturbed 
by  direct  or  indirect  influence  from  the  centre  of  the  system  in 
the  tropical  zone,  is  still,  clear,  dry  weather.  There  are  no  inde- 
pendent atmospheric  arrangements  or  influences  originating  in  it, 
and  none  exerted  upon  it,  which  can  disturb  that  normal  state, 
except  those  which  emanate  from  the  basis  of  the  atmospheric 
system  in  the  tropics.  Meteorologists  tell  you  that  the  sun,  heating 
the  land  of  the  temperate  zone  produces  the  various  changes  of 
2 


10  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

state  and  all  the  other  phenomena,  but  they  are  mistaken  and 
mislead  you.  The  hottest  sun  heated  lands  are  changeless  and 
arid.  In  the  San  Joachim  Valley,  of  California,  at  Millerton,  the 
average  summer  mean  temperature  is  about  one  hundred  degrees 
and  that  mean  sometimes  rise!,  to  104°  with  unbroken  fair  weather 
during  the  whole  period.  The  influences  emanating  from  the 
tropical  base  of  the  system,  then  operate  to  the  north  of  it. 
In  their  absence  the  sun  heats  up  the  land,  but  in  vain.  Those 
influences  return  in  winter  and  bring  changes  and  rain  upon  it 
again.  And  this  is  true  of  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  continent. 
Every  fact  in  nature  properly  understood  and  comprehended, 
tends  to  prove  the  proposition  I  am  stating.  I  cannot  allude  to 
others  now  without  anticipating,  but  I  can  assure  you  that  this 
truth  will  appear  as  we  proceed  too  clearly  to  be  questioned  by 
any  mind  which  is  honest  with  itself.  Accept  as  true  then  my  first 
fundamental  proposition,  that  the  normal  state  in  the  temperate 
zones  is  still,  clear,  fair  weather. 

My  second  proposition  is  that  every  other  one  of  the  enumer- 
ated or  known  states  and  changes  of  the  weather,  and  all  the 
phenomena  connected  with  them,  result  from,  or  are  incident  to, 
and  a  part  of  some  one  of  several  distinct,  peculiar,  organized 
atmospheric  conditions,  limited  and  circumscribed  in  character, 
although  frequently  covering  a  considerable  area, — which  are 
formed  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  tropical  zone,  and  pass  from 
thence  on  to  and  over  our  zone,  or,  are  formed  in  our  zone  of 
materials  and  by  influences  emanating  from  the  base  of  the  system 
in  the  tropical  zone. 

My  third  proposition  is,  that  all  the  conditions  referred  to, 
result  from  the  operation  of  fixed  and  intelligible  laws,  pertain- 
ing tO  a  GENERAL  AND  INTELLIGIBLE  ORGANIZATION  Ol  the 

atmosphere,  or  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM,  which  has  its  base  in  the 
tropical  zone. 

These  three  propositions  cover  the  whole  ground  Reversing 
the  order  of  description,  we  have  an  ORGANIZED  ATMOSPHERIC 
SYSTEM,  created  and  controlled  by  laws  which  in  their  operation 
produce  limited,  distinct  and  ORGANIZED  CONDITIONS,  and  those 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  11 

conditions  in  their  operations  and  movements  produce  the  simple 
STATES  and  PHENOMENA  which  constitute  "THE  WEATHER." 

And  now  reader,  if  you  sincerely  wish  to  understand  the  system 
from  the  operation  of  which  you  cannot  escape,  and  which  influ- 
ences in  a  hundred  ways,  for  good  or  evil,  your  daily  life  and  busi- 
ness and  happiness,  discard,  or  hold  in  abeyance,  all  opinions  and 
impressions  derived  from  the  teachings  of  professed  meteorologists, 
or  received  theories,  and  give  me  a  candid  attention  and  reasona- 
ble confidence,  while  I  trace  for  you  as  matter  of  fact  the  manner 
in  which  the  STATES  are  produced  by  the  CONDITIONS, — the 
elements  and  mode  of  operation  of  the  conditions  ; — and  then  in- 
vestigate and  unfold  to  you  the  elements  and  laws  of  the  GENERAL 
SYSTEM  by  which  the  conditions  are  produced — leaving  theoretic 
discussion  for  the  close  of  our  inquiry. 

The  various  states  and  phenomena  constituting  the  weather 
then,  for  any  considerable  period,  as  a  month,  a  season,  or  a  year, 
which  are  a  departure  from  fair  weather,  result  from  or  are  pro- 
duced by,  a  series  of  organized — varied — successive — passing — 
atmospheric  CONDITIONS.  This  is  our  second,  fundamental  prop- 
osition. It  is  complex,  and  I  wish  all  its  elements  to  be  fully 
understood  and  perfectly  impressed  upon  the  memory. 

In  the  first  place  that  the  conditions  are  organized  portions  or 
"conditions"  of  the  atmosphere.  I  use  the  term  conditions  for 
the  want  of  a  better.  Condition  and  state  are  sometimes  used 
synonymously,  but  you  must  not  confound  them.  I  u«e  the  term 
state  to  denote  a  part  or  element  of  a  CONDITION  and  I  use  the 
term  condition  to  denote  the  entire,  limited  organization  of  which 
the  states  are  incidents  or  parts.  And  I  say  they  are  organized 
because  each  distinct  variety  is  a  distinct,  circumscribed  body,  and 
has  its  distinct  parts  and  elements,  with  their  relative  movements 
and  operations,  producing  specific  actions  and  results,  and  that 
constitutes  an  organization. 

These  atmospheric  conditions  occur  f/equently  though  irregularly, 
and  therefore  constitute  during  any  considerable  period,  a  SERIES. 

They  follow  after  one  another  at  intervals,  more  or  less  regular 
and  are  therefore  SUCCESSIVE. 


12  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  them,  differing  more  or  less  from 
each  other  in  their  elements,  and  in  the  states  or  phenomena 
which  they  produce  ,*  and  sometimes  one  succeeds,  and  sometimes 
another,  and  therefore  they  are  VARIED. 

They  embrace  or  involve  a  certain  distinct  part  of  the  atmos- 
phere, near  the  earth — generally  within  five  miles  of  it — and  that 
part,  so  involved  and  organized  into  a  distinct  condition,  moves  or 
passes  over  it.  In  the  United  States,  north  of  lat.  35°,  these  con- 
ditions pass  over  the  country  from  the  westward  to  the  eastward, 
and  produce  the  different  states  or  phenomena  and  their  changes, 
as  the  different  parts  or  elements  of  the  organized  condition  pass 
over  or  near  us.  Though  many  of  them  are  storms,  in  the  com- 
mon acceptation  of  the  word,  that  term  is  not  sufficiently  compre- 
hensive to  describe  them,  for  they  are  not  always  or  necessarily 
stormy,  or  attended  by  the  precipitation  of  snow  or  rain  ;  nor, 
when  they  do  precipitate,  is  there  always  rain  or  snow  at  all  the 
places  where  the  changes  of  state  occur.  Thus  they  are  PASSING 
and  produce  the  states  as  they  pass  ;  and  they  frequently  pass  by, 
at  the  south  or  north,  but  near  enough  nevertheless  to  affect  the 
states  of  the  weather  to  some  extent,  according  to  circumstances 
to  be  considered. 

These  are  the  general  elements  of  our  second  proposition.  Let 
us  now  look  specifically  at  the  various  particulars  in  which  these 
conditions  severally  affect  or  produce  changes  in  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere  at  any  particular  place  in  the  country,  as  they  pass 
over  or  near  it. 

FIRST,  they  affect  the  Atmosphere  in  respect  to  weight  as  meas- 
ured by  the  Barometer  ; 

SECOND,  in  respect  to  temperature,  as  felt  and  as  measured  by 
the  Thermometer; 

THIRD,  in  respect  to  the  movements  of  that  part  which  is  in 
contact  with  the  surface  of  the  earth,  from  calm  to  windy,  or  wind 
from  one  direction  to  wind  from  another ; 

FOURTH,  as  to  clearness  or  cloudiness  ; 

FIFTH,  in  respect  to  humidity,  as  felt  and  as  measured  by  the 
various  contrivances  termed  Hygrometers; 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  13 

SIXTH,  in  respect  to  precipitation,  producing  rain,  hail  or  snow. 

SEVENTH,  they  affect  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
thereby  affecting  the  feelings  of  men  and  animals,  and  producing 
lightning  and  thunder  and  other  electrical  phenomena. 

But  in  order  to  a  perfect  and  clear  understanding  of  the  char- 
acter and  scope  of  this  second  proposition,  I  must  anticipate  some- 
what, and  give  you  a  history  and  description  of  one  or  two  pass- 
ing conditions,  (in  relation  to  which,  my  data  are  perfect  and  will 
not  be  disputed)  and  the  changes  of  state  which  they  produced. 

On  the  3d  day  of  August,  1859,  I  left  home  at  evening,  for 
the  purpose  of  attending  the  meeting  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  Science,  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  and 
going  from  thence  to  Saratoga.  The  weather  for  several  days 
had  been  pleasant,  and  the  enveloping  state  had  been  a  normal 
fair  weather  one  ;  but  at  evening  there  were  indications  of  a 
change,  and  that  a  disturbing  condition  was  coming  on.  My 
barometer,  which  hangs  about  40  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  which  had  stood  during  the  continuance  of  the  fair  weather 
condition  at  about  30.1  inches,  began  to  fall.  There  had  been 
during  the  afternoon,  a  fresh  breeze  from  the  southward.  The 
thermometer  did  not  drop  as  rapidly  at  nightfall,  as  upon  the 
preceding  fine  days.  The  air  seemed  more  humid  and  sultry 
although  the  sky  was  entirely  cloudless.  These  were  indications, 
though  not  then  decisive,  of  the  approach  of  a  belt  of  showers 
or  a  showery  CONDITION  from  the  westward,  which  as  it  ap-v 
proached  had  begun  to  exert  its  influence  upon  the  atmosphere 
with  which  we  were  then  in  contact. 

I  staid  that  night  with  a  friend,  Col.  Porter  of  Hartford. 
Waking  about  three  o'clock  in  the  morning,  I  heard  the  rattling 
of  the  shutters  and  the  sound  of  the  wind  which  had  continued 
through  the  night  and  freshened  to  a  stiff  breeze.  As  quick  as 
thought  the  entire  programme  of  the  weather  for  the  next  three  days, 
was  as  clearly  understood  by  me  as  if  it  had  all  happened  and  be- 
come history.  At  the  breakfast  table  Col.  Porter  was  felicitating 
himself  upon  the  quantity  of  hay  he  had  cut  and  cured,  during 
the  preceding  fine  days,  and  the  prospect  of  cutting  the  last  of  it 


14 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


during  that  day.  I  inquired  of  him  whether  he  had  housed  what 
he  had  made ;  He  replied  that  he  had  not.  Learning  that  he  had 
a  considerable  number  of  tons  thus  cured  and  in  heaps,  I  advised 
him  to  let  his  machines  rest  and  set  all  hands  to  housing  it,  for  it 
was  sure  to  rain  within  24  hours.  He  was  loth  to  believe  me 
for  the  sky  was  still  cloudless,  and  the  wind,  he  said,  had  blown 
the  same  way  the  afternoon  before.  But  I  satisfied  him  that  that 
was  a  part  of  the  indication  and  he  did  follow  my  advice,  and 
saved  at  least  a  hundred  dollars  in  the  quality  of  his  hay,  and  the 
expense  he  would  have  incurred  in  re-drying  it.  His  letter  ac- 
knowledging these  facts  is  before  me. 

Passing  up  the  valley  in  the  afternoon,  I  saw  many  fields  of 
hay,  cured,  unhoused  and  imperfectly  cocked — the  owners  still 
engaged  thoughtlessly,  in  cutting  and  curing,  although  the  cloud- 
bank  of  the  approaching  rain  was  becoming  visible  low  down  in 
the  northwest.  The  rain  reached  Springfield  in  the  night,  with 
lightning  and  thunder  and  continued  into  the  forenoon  of  the  next 
day.  The  following  diagram  exhibits  approximately  the  charac- 
ter of  the  condition  which  then  passed  over  New  England,  and  as 
it  was  then  approaching  side  foremost  from  the  westward. 

FIG.  1. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


15 


In  that  condition,  as  generally  happens  in  those  of  its  class  in 
the  summer  months,  the  lightning  and  thunder  and  heavy  wind 
and  rain  were  in,  and  under  the  eastern  part  of  the  belt,  or,  to  be 
more  accurate  the  southeastern  part  or  side,  and  were  first  experi- 
enced. Probably  the  southeastern  third  of  the  belt,  covering  thirty 
or  forty  miles  of  its  width,  was  composed  of  clouds  of  that  charac- 
ter. After  they  had  passed  over  to  the  east,  another  third  or 
more  of  the  width,  continued  to  precipitate  rain  as  it  passed, 
without  thunder  or  lightning  or  much  wind — like  a  continuous 
and  gradually  diminishing  rain.  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
belt  of  clouds  was  more  or  less  broken,  gradually  thinning  and 
melting  toward  the  western  edge. 

The  following  view  taken  by  daguerreotype  looking  northwest 
at  a  different  time,  but  when  a  similar  condition  was  approaching 
and  had  become  visible  in  the  northwest,  will  show  approximately 
the  appeal  aiice  of  this  at  sundown  on  the  4th  at  Springfield. 

FIG.  2. 


16  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

During  the  continuous  rain  in  the  morning  of  the  5th,  and  while 
the  Association  was  gathering  for  a  general  meeting,  the  late  ven- 
erable Prof.  Sillimaii  came  to  me  in  the  hall,  stating  that  the 
Association  was  invited  to  go  to  Amherst  the  next  day,  and  asked 
me  if  I  could  tell  him  what  the  weather  would  be.  I  replied: 
"  Certainly  !  It  will  be  fair,  with  a  stiff,  cool,  northwest  wind." 
He  seemed  interested  and  asked  me  how. I  knew  there  would  be 
such  a  wind.  I  told  him  I  knew  from  the  character  of  the  south- 
erly wind  of  the  preceding  day,  and  I  explained  to  him  the  nature 
of  the  condition  which  was  then  passing  over  us,  and  the  manner 
in  which  it  had  produced  the  various  phenomena  and  changes  of 
the  preceding  forty-eight  hours,  and  that  a  corresponding  north- 
west wind  on  the  western  side  was  an  essential  part  of  the  con- 
dition, and  must  necessarily  pass  over  us  in  turn.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  general  meeting,  the  question  whether  the  Amherst 
invitation  should  be  accepted  came  up,  and  with  it  the  inquiry 
what  the  weather  was  likely  to  be.  Prof.  S.  stated  that  he  "  had 
inquired  of  a  distinguished  Meteorologist  and  was  assured  that  it 
would  be  pleasant,  with  a  stiff,  cool,  northwest  breeze."  As  such 
winds  are  uncommon  at  that  hottest  season  of  the  year,  there 
were  some  sneers  and  a  few  smiles  of  incredulity,  but  the  predic- 
tion was  generally  well  received.  That  prediction  was  fulfilled 
to  the  letter,  and  I  have  before  me  a  letter  from  the  venerable 
Professor  certifying  to  these  facts. 

During  the  day,  the  lecture  of  Prof.  Henry,  to  which  I  have 
heretofore  alluded  and  shall  again  allude,  was  delivered.  In  the 
afternoon  I  took  the  cars  for  Albany.  A  gentleman  from  New 
York, — Hon.  Frederick  Conklin,  introduced  himself  to  me  and 
also  inquired  for  the  grounds  upon  which  I  ba?ed  the  prediction, 
and  I  explained  them  to  him  in  like  manner.  I  told  him  moreover 
that  we  should  run  out  from  under  the  western  portion  of  the 
belt  which  then  covered  us,  before  we  reached  Albany,  and  meet 
the  northwest  wind.  We  did  so  run  out  near  the  state  line,  and 
we  met  that  northwest  wind  though  light,  under  a  clear  sky,  as 
we  left  the  cars  and  stepped  upon  the  ferry-boat  at  East  Albany. 

The  following  view  taken  also  at  a  different  time,  by  daguer- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC 


SYSTEM. 


17 


reotype,  but  when  a  southwest  condition  of  this  class  was  clearing 
off  from  the  northwest,  moving  to  the  eastward,  will  give  you  a 
sufficiently  accurate  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  western  edge 
of  the  belt  we  are  considering,  as  seen  before  the  train  ran  out 
from  under  it,  at  the  state  line  between  Massachusetts  and  New 
York.  The  view  was  taken  looking  to  the  northwest.  But  you 
will  have  opportunities  to  see  the  whole  operation  several  times  a 
year  if  you  will  observe  as  you  should  do. 

FIG.  3. 


The  occurrence  and  general  character  of  that  atmospheric 
condition,  being  thus  conclusively  proved,  let  us  go  back  and  note 
the  changes  and  phenomena,  which  were  produced  by  it  in  its 
passage. 

First,  there  was  a  precedent  fall  of  the  barometer  for  more 
than  thirty-six  hours ;  Second,  there  was  a  rise  of  the  thermome- 
ter, and  increased  sultriness,  especially  in  the  evening  and  night, 
and  through  the  day  preceding  the  rain ;  Third,  there  was  a 
fresh,  snappish,  earnest,  southerly  wind,  gradually  increasing  for 
more  than  twenty-four  hours  before  Ihe  belt  of  rain  reached  the 
place.  Fourth,  the  atmosphere  grew  humid  and  misty  and  close, 


18  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

and  there  were  patches  of  cloud  called  scud  floating  in  the  south- 
erly wind  toward  the  approaching  belt  of  showers ;  and  the 
moisture  stood  upon  the  tumblers  and  gathered  upon  the  stones, 
and  upon  every  cold  object.  Fifth,  there  was  a  change  in  the 
electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere  and  doubtless  (altho'  I  do 
not  know  the  fact)  heads  ached  that  were  accustomed  to  ache 
when  thunder  showers  were  approaching,  and  rheumatic  joints, 
and  corns,  and  bones  that  had  once  been  broken,  were  also  cog- 
nizant of  its  approach.  And  so  when  the  belt  of  showers  reached 
the  place,  thunder  and  lightning  and  heavy  rain  were  experienced, 
and  then  as  the  belt  passed,  the  quiet,  continuous  and  diminishing 
rain,  and  after  that,  the  curtain  of  spent,  melting  and  gradually 
thinning  clouds  of  the  western  portion  of  the  belt  continued  to 
pass  over,  and  after  all  these  had  passed,  there  followed  the  cool, 
dry,  equally  fresh,  snappish  and  earnest  northwest  wind  of  its 
western  side.  And  when  that  had  passed  in  turn,  the  place  was 
again  enveloped  in  a  still,  clear,  normal,  fair-weather  state  and  so 
remained  until  the  1 3th,  when  another  similar  condition  passed. 

The  condition  described,  moved  slowly.  It  appeared  and  be- 
gan to  precipitate  at  Buffalo  on  the  3d,  at  7.30  P.  M.  At  Au- 
burn, according  to  the  Register  of  Dr.  Taylor,  the  rain  began  to 
fall  between  midnight  and  4  A.  M.,  of  the  4th,  distance  about  115 
miles. 

At  Amherst  at  4  P.  M.  of  the  4th.  At  Springfield  on  the 
evening  of  the  same  day.  At  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  the  5th,  tht 
time  of  day  not  ascertained,  and  at  New  Bedford,  at  4.30  of 
the  same  day.  It  M7as  therefore  about  48  hours  moving  from 
Buffalo  to  Cambridge  and  New  Bedford,  a  rate  of  progress  east- 
ward (varying  in  different  localities  and  at  different  times  of  the 
day)  from  12  to  15  miles  an  hour. 

There  was  a  previous  similar  condition  but  of  little  intensity, 
which  was  at  Buffalo  on  the  1st,  and  Amherst  on  the  2d.  It 
passed  Harvard  on  the  3d,  as  is  shown  by  an  overcast  sky  and 
the  other  phenomena,  although  it  was  spent  and  did  not  precipi- 
tate either  at  Harvard  or  New  Bedford,  and  the  northerly  wind 
was  not  produced.  And  there  was  still  another  of  considerable 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  19 

intensity  during  the  first  half  of  August,  which  reached  Buffalo 
at  G.30  P.M.  of  the  llth,  and  reached  Amherst  on  the  night  of  the 
12th,  and  Harvard  College  and  New  Bedford  on  the  13th.  All 
this  the  records  which  follow  this  page  will  show.  I  have  often 
passed  through  such  belts.  The  following  is  an  instance: 

On  the  14th  day  of  July,  1870,  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  S.  Childs,  Dr. 
Samuel  Lynes,  my  wife  and  myself  left  Norwalk  about  10  A.M. 
for  Saratoga,  by  the  Housatonic  route.  The  weather  had  been 
unusually  hot  and  dry,  and  some  of  the  party  being  invalids,  we 
were  anxious  respecting  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  early  morning 
was  without  sign  of  change.  But  as  we  ran  along  the  shore  to 
Bridgeport  we  observed  a  south-southwest  breeze,  of  more  than 
usual  strength  and  humidity  for  that  hour  of  the  day,  and  saw 
that  the  northern  sky,  low  down,  was  paled  by  a  misty  cirrus. 
From  these  indicia  I  inferred  that  we  should  meet  and  pass 
through  a  belt  of  showers  on  our  way,  and  have  a  comfortable 
day,  and  so  told  my  companions.  As  we  ran  north  on  the 
Housatonic  road  the  breeze  freshened,  and  the  sun  began  to 
be  obscured  by  the  formless  misty  cirrus  of  the  advancing  belt. 
When  we  reached  New  Milford,  the  southeastern  edge  of  the  ex- 
pected belt,  with  its  layer  of  distinct  cirrus  overhead,  and  its  layer 
of  forming  stratus  beneath,  became  visible  low  down  in  the  north- 
west. As  we  passed  on  the  sun  became  more  and  more  obscured, 
the  breeze  stronger,  and  the  belt  of  clouds  more  visible,  until  we 
passed  beneath  the  southeastern  edge  of  it  at  Barrington  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. That  belt  was  about  fifty  miles  wide,  and  of  moderate 
intensity  at  that  point,  its  bands  ranging  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  but 
its  northern  part  was  very  intense  and  destructive  at  Montreal  on 
the  13th,  and  in  Maine  on  the  14th,  as  the  newspapers  stated. 
The  showers  were  not  continuous,  but  scattered  beneath  it. 
We  passed  between  two  of  them  in  crossing  the  belt,  receiving 
a  slight  rain  from  the  corner  of  one,  and  emerged  from  under  the 
belt  between  the  State  line  and  Albany,  meeting  the  cool,  re- 
freshing northwest  wind,  with  its  scud,  on  the  other  side,  which 
we  enjoyed  till  we  arrived  at  Saratoga.  That  belt  of  showers, 
with  its  wings  of  wind  and  its  extended  curtain  of  cloud,  gave  us 
a  comfortable  day  and  an  agreeable  ride,  and  my  companions 
watched  our  progress  toward  and  through  it  with  great  interest. 
We  subsequently  found  that  it  was  over  Saratoga  in  the  forenoon, 
and  at  Albany  about  noon.  We  passed  through  it  between  two 
and  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

The  foregoing  statement  is  correct. 

T.  S.  GUILDS, 
SAMUEL  LYNES,  M.  D. 


20 


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THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


21 


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THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


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24 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


Having  thus  taken  a  general  view  of  that  distinctive,  passing 
condition,  and  the  states  and  changes  of  the  weather,  and  the 
other  phenomena  produced  by  it,  it  may  be  well  to  look  at  another 
condition  of  the  same  class  which  occurred  late  in  the  Autumn  in 
a  different  part  of  the  country,  and  passed  over  an  extensive  sur- 
face, constituting  an  Autumn  southeaster,  in  respect  to  which  my 
data  are  perfect,  but  too  voluminous  for  insertion. 

FIG.  4. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  25 

The  foregoing  diagram  exhibits  the  position  of  such  a  southeaster, 
which  entered  upon  the  continent  over  Texas,  and  curving  to  the 
northeastward  had  crossed  the  upper  part  and  arrived  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  was  drifting  to  the  eastward  to 
cover  the  entire  territory  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  east 
of  that  river,  and  pass  off  on  to  the  Atlantic.  It  will  be  seen 
that  it  had  the  same  lateral  winds  as  the  one  I  have  described, 
but  as  the  southeast  wind  was  much  stronger,  (indeed,  it  blew 
a  gale,)  its  direction  was  more  at  right  angles  with  the  axis 
of  the  storm.  There  will  be  noticed  on  this  diagram,  arrows  in 
the  body  of  condensation  or  central  portion  of  the  storm,  indicat- 
ing that  that  portion  was  moving  to  the  northeast  and  this  was 
true  of  it,  and  is  true  of  all  the  various  conditions,  as  a  rule. 
There  are  some  exceptions  which  will  be  hereafter  noted.  It  will 
be  further  observed  that  the  dotted  lines  on  the  northwest  portion 
of  the  storm,  indicate  that  portions  of  it  had  moved  up  to  the 
northeast  and  left  the  surface  uncovered,  showing  the  manner  in 
which  such  stoims  generally  "clear  off,"  from  the  northwest.  It 
should  also  be  noticed  that  the  shading,  down  at  the  Gulf,  indicates 
the  accession  of  additional  portions  upon  its  eastern  side,  to  which 
we  shall  hereafter  more  particularly  refer. 

Let  us  now  consider  ourselves  as  having  been  at  Springfield, 
Ohio,  over  which  this  storm  passed  in  its  movement  to  the  east- 
ward and  northeastward.  There  we  should  have  noticed  the  same 
order  of  events  except  that  there  was  no  thunder  or  light- 
ing— the  lateral  winds  were  much  stronger — the  body  of  conden- 
sation broader — the  rain  longer  continued — and  snow  fell  where- 
ever,  and  to  the  extent,  that  the  northwest  wind  blew  in  under  the 
western  edge  of  the  storm.  In  the  showery  condition  which  we 
have  described  as  passing  over  Springfield,  Mass.,  the  southerly 
wind  blew  in  under  the  belt  of  clouds,  and  obliquely  across  it, 
nearly  to  its  western  edge,  but  the  northwest  wind  did  not  blow 
under  the  belt  of  cloud,  or  at  least,  not  with  any  force.  In  the 
condition  we  are  now  describing,  the  southeast  wind  also  blew  at 
right  angles  under  and  across  the  belt  of  condensation,  but  the 


26  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

northwest  wind  blew  In  under  that  southeast  wind,  a  small  part  of 
the  way,  and  turned  the  rain  to  snow. 

The  states  and  changes  which  then  occurred  at  Springfield  were 
as  follows:  Anterior  to  the  approach  of  the  storm,  within  influ- 
encing distance  there  was  a  fair,  pleasant,  still  and  normal  day, 
sometimes  called  a  weather  breeder,  with  a  high  barometer.  As 
soon  as  the  influence  of  the  storm  reached  the  place  and  was  felt, 
the  barometer  began  to  fall,  the  air  to  move  towards  the  storm, 
and  the  wind  to  freshen  from  the  southeast  and  fill  with  scud — the 
thermometer  rose — the  air  grew  damp — approaching  cloud  conden- 
sation (cirrus)  was  seen  in  the  west  and  northwest,  and  men  arid 
animals  felt  sensibly  the  approach  of  the  storm.  In  the  belt  of 
showers  which  we  have  described,  the  commencement  of  the  fall 
of  rain  was  nearly  coincident  with  the  arrival  of  the  eastern 
abrupt  edge  of  the  cloudy  portion  of  the  condition  over  the  place. 
In  the  condition  we  are  now  describing,  the  cloudiness  extended 
from  one  to  two  hundred  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  rain,  grad- 
ually thickening  from  the  eastern  edge  to  the  part  where  rain  was 
falling,  and  the  western  edge  terminated  abruptly  with  the  fall  of 
snow.  In  all  other  respects  and  indeed  in  all  their  essential  feat- 
ures, the  two  conditions  were  alike,  and  belong  to  the  same  gen- 
eral class.  The  August  condition  would  have  been  wider  and 
like  the  autumn  one  if  it  had  occurred  later  in  the  season ;  and 
so  the  autumn  one  would  have  been  narrower,  and  a  similar 
belt  of  showers,  if  it  had  occurred  in  summer. 

The  number  of  this  class  of  conditions  (taking  a  period  of  ten 
years)  which  occur  in  each  year,  at  any  given  point  east  of  the 
95th  meridian,  will  not  vary,  on  an  average,  much  from  thirty, 
and  if  anything  exceed  it.  All,  or  nearly  all  of  our  thunder 
showers,  so  called,  are  contained  in  and  are  a  part  of  them.  In 
the  course  of  nearly  fifty  years  habitual  and  close  observation  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  I  have  not  seen  a  dozen,  single, 
isolated  thunder  showers.  Such  isolated  showers  may  be  frequent 
in  Europe,  but  .that  most  of  them  occur  there  also,  as  parts  of 
just  such  passing  conditions,  is  demonstrable  by  their  records. 
Slight  showers  sometimes  occur  on  the  eastern  or  western  edge 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  27 

of  the  belt  before  the  main  body  has  arrived  or  after  it  has  passed, 
which  seems  to  be  isolated,  but  they  are  a  part  of  the  condition. 
There  was  such  an  one  at  Amherst,  August  2d,  1859,  as  appears 
by  the  tables. 

Of  the  thirty  or  more,  at  least  one-fifth  do  not  precipitate  at 
all  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent.  Whether  because  their 
energy  is  spent  before  they  reach  us,  or  because  they  never  were 
sufficiently  intense  in  their  character,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  de- 
termine. Probably  sometimes  from  one  cause  and  sometimes  the 
other.  That  of  August  1st,  1859,  precipitated  lightly  at  Buffalo 
and  Amherst,  but  not  at  Cambridge  or  New  Bedford.  These 
feeble  conditions  are  most  common  during  summer  droughts. 
They  are  perfectly  distinct — have  all  the  elements  and  go  through 
all  the  motions  of  the  most  intense  conditions  of  their  class,  but 
feebly  and  deceptively.  They  excite  and  disappoint  hopes  and 
are  the  cause  and  foundation  of  the  proverb  that  "  all  signs  fail 
in  a  dry  time"  But  I  shall  refer  to  this  class  of  conditions  again 
and  note  other  occasional  peculiarities. 

Before  leaving  this  branch  of  our  enquiry  I  wish  to  put  on 
recor  d  two  or  three  facts,  mainly  for  reference  hereafter.  On  my 
way  to  Saratoga  from  Springfield,  I  saw  frequently  fields  where 
cured  hay  was  lying  in  various  conditions,  imperfectly  cocked,  in 
the  windrow,  and  spread  around,  and  in  several  instances  partly 
loaded  and  left  when  the  owner  was  overtaken  by  the  rain.  Tens 
of  thousands  of  dollars  were  lost  by  farmers  in  New  York  and 
New  England  by  that  single  rain,  in  the  value  of  their  hay  and 
the  cost  of  redrying  it,  which  would  have  been  saved  if  they  had 
understood  the  thirty-six  hours  perfectly  intelligible  warning  which 
preceded  it.  It  was  not  my  fault  that  they  did  not  understand  it. 
In  1856  I  published  in  the  u  Philosophy  of  the  Weather,"  a  full 
account  of  the  condition  with  a  diagram  and  directions  how  to 
understand  and  prepare  for  it.  The  following  is  a  part  and  a 
small  part  of  that  description,  but  it  contains  the  gist  of  the  matter: 

"  This  class  of  storms,  or  belts  of  showers,  present  the  follow- 
ing succession  of  phenomena  in  summer : 
1.  Still  warm  weather,  one  or  more  days. 


28  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

2.  Fresh  southerly  wind,  one  or  more  days  ;  if  more  than  one, 
dying  away  at  the  8.  W.,  at  nightfall,  but  continuing  into  the 
evening  of  the  day  before  the  belt  of  condensation  arrives. 

3.  Belt  of  condensation,  with  or  without  rain  or  showers,  with 
the  easterly  wind  blowing  axially,  if  the  condensation   is  heavy 
and  the  belt  wide  ;  westerly,  if  the  condensation  is  feeble  or  the 
belt  narrow — the  clouds  moving  about  E.  N.  E. 

4.  Cooler  air,  light  N.  W.  in  summer,  heavy  N.  W.  in  autumn, 
winter,  and  spring. 

And,  the  next  period — 

5.  Still  warm  weather  or  light  airs. 

6.  Souiherly  wind,  fresh. 

7.  Belt  of  condensation. 

8.  Cool  northerly  wind. 

And  so  on,  successively,  unless  broken  in  upon  by  some  other 
class. 

Sometimes  these  periods  are  exceedingly  regular,  at  other  times 
the  other  classes  prevail.  I  have  much  reason  to  believe  that 
this  is  the  normal,  periodic  provision  for  condensation  of  our  por- 
tion of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  probably  of  every  other 
where  rain  falls  regularly  in  the  summer  season,  and  that  the 
other  classes  are  exceptions,  as  the  hurricanes  are  exceptions  to 
the  normal  condition  of  the  weather  every  where.  Perhaps  in 
some  seasons,  during  the  northern  transit,  the  exceptions  may 
equal  the  rule,  but  I  do  not  now  remember  such  a  season.  In  other 
years  nearly  all  the  storms  are  of  this  character.  Thus,  Dr.  Hil- 
dreth  (in  Silliman's  Journal  for  1827,)  speaking  of  the  year  18*26, 
in  a  note  to  his  i  egister  of  that  year,  says  :  '  There  have  been, 
this  year,  an  unusual  number  of  winds  from  N.  or  N.  W.  Nearly 
every  rain  the  past  summer  has  been  followed  with  winds  from 
the  northward,  when  in  many  previous  summers,  the  wind 
shifted  to  the  southward  after  rain.'  " 

When  preparing  that  book  I  took  great  pains  to  enlist  some  of 
our  college  Professors  in  the  observation  of  this  class  of  condi- 
tions. I  succeeded  to  some  extent  by  telegraphing  and  calling 
personally,  and  pointing  out  the  succession  of  phenomena  as  they 
passed  to  the  late  respected  Prof.  D.  Olmstead  of  Yale  College. 
But  when  apparently  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  the  matter,  he  ad- 
vised a  publication  through  the  Smithsonian,  and  said  if  not  so  pub- 
lished, no  matter  what  the  facts  might  be,  they  would  be  ignored. 
I  replied  that  if  such  was  the  state  of  things,  I  should  publish  at 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  29 

my  own  expense ;  for  if  there  was  to  be  an  Aristocracy  of  science, 
or  an  Autocracy  in  any  branch  of  it,  in  this  country,  it  would  have 
no  aid  from  me.  To  test  the  matter  I  sent  one  of  the  first  copies 
to  Prof.  Henry,  and  although  it  contained  the  full  description 
alluded  to,  and  fifty  other  new  facts  of  great  practical  interest  to 
farmers,  and  during  the  next  three  years  he  published  several  elab- 
orate essays  which  were  scattered  broadcast,  at  government  ex- 
pense, in  the  agricultural  part  of  the  Patent  office  report,  in  which 
he  professed  to  give  to  the  country  all  the  facts  then  known  bearing 
upon  the  subject,  there  was  no  allusion  to  the  book  or  the  facts. 

I  also  sent  in  August,  185G,  one  hundred  and  fifty  copies  of  the 
book,  by  express,  to  the  Association  for  the  advancement  of  Science 
then  in  se-sion  at  Albany,  a  sufficient  number  to  supply  every 
member  then  present  with  a  copy.  They  were  duly  delivered, 
three  days  before  the  adjournment,  but  were  never  acknowledged, 
distributed  or  returned.  The  box  was  received  and  opened,  but 
closed  again,  and  taken  to  the  premises  of  the  President  of  the 
Association,  and  there  remains,  safely  kept,  so  that  the  books  can 
do  no  mischief  to  theories,  or  reputations.  On  my  enquiring  after- 
wards, a  lame  apology  was  given  by  the  president  for  their  non- 
distribution  then,  but  none  has  been  gicen  for  their  non-distribution 
or  non  return  since.  Prof.  Olmstead  was  a  true  prophet. 

If  tho-e  books  had  been  distributed,  the  body  of  the  Associa- 
tion, who  are  doubtless  candid  and  honest  enquirers  for  truth, 
would  have  examined  them,  and  anticipated  and  understood  the 
phenomena  which  occurred  at  Springfield,  as  I  did. 

With  this  general  view  of  the  states  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  produced  by  one  class  of  the  passing 
conditions,  and  the  general  view  also  of  the  character  of  that 
class  of  conditions  in  their  intensity  and  feebleness,  and  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn,  I  will  close  this  chapter.  We  have  yet  to 
analyze  and  understand  the  organization  of  the  long,  central, 
cloudy  and  precipitating  body  of  the  condition  and  its  u  wings  of 
wind"  but  before  we  can  do  so  intelligently  and  understandingly 
we  must  examine  and  understand  the  stories  of  the  atmosphere  and 
their  cloud  furniture. 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  stories  of  the  Atmosphere — clouds  of  the  different  stories — different 
character  and  function — Three  of  those  stories — constituted  by  the  inter- 
position of  the  upper  counter  trade — course  of  that  trade — varies  in  quan- 
tity and  altitude — constitutes  the  middle  story — rate  of  progress — open  to 
observation — three  kinds  of  cloud  in  the  first  or  surface  story,  mist,  scud 
and  fog — mist  common  to  all  the  stories — Description  of  fog — low  fog — 
high  fog — Scud  practically  of  great  importance.  Nomenclature  of  How- 
ard— does  not  include  the  scud — Description  of  the  clouds  by  Howard — 
Founded  on  form  and  structure  alone — Location,  function,  and  use  not  re- 
garded— Howard's  descriptions  for  that  reason  imperfect — Nimbus  not  a 
distinct  form  and  should  be  discarded — Return  to  consideration  of  scud — 
they  form  and  float  in  the  surface  winds — characteristics  of  the  N.  W.  scud 
— characteristics  of  the  N.  E.  scud — of  the  S.  E.  scud — of  the  S.  W.  scud 
Clouds  of  the  second  story — all  of  the  stratus  forms — Three  forms  of  stratus, 
viz  :  Cirro-stratus,  cumulo-stratus  and  stratus — Description  of  them — 
constitute  the  rain-bearing  clouds — A  single  form  of  cloud  known  to  the 
upper  story,  the  cirrus — description  of  the  cirrus. 

**  The  stories  of  the  atmosphere  f"  And  has  the  atmosphere 
stories  ? 

It  has ;  and  as  distinct  and  peculiar  as  the  stories  of  your 
dwelling. 

And  are  the  clouds  of  the  different  stories  peculiar  and  unlike  ? 

Yes,  in  character  and  function,  and  as  much  so  as  the  furniture 
of  your  parlor  and  bed-chamber  and  attic. 

And  are  the  stories  constant  and  permanent? 

Substantially  so  over  the  United  States  east  of  the  meridian 
of  100°  ;  and  in  some  other  portions  of  both  hemispheres ;  but  that 
is  for  our  consideration  when  we  come  to  examine  the  organization 
of  the  General  System. 

There  are  three  of  these  stories.  They  are  constituted  by  the 
interposition  of  a  current  of  warm,  rain-bearing  air  from  the 
tropics.  It  enters  over  the  United  States  from  the  southward  in 
large  volume,  at  different  points,  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 
It  moves  to  the  northwest  in  the  tropics  and  curves  between  25° 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  31 

and  3.">°  lat.,  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  moving  afterwards 
to  the  northeastward.  It  varies  in  quantity.  Sometimes  not 
more  than  a  thousand  or  two  feet  in  depth,  at  others  from  6  to 
1 0,000  feet — u  a  river  in  the  air."  Where  it  enters  upon  the 
continent  its  inferior  surface  may  generally  be  half  a  mile  to  a 
mile  above  the  earth.  Gradually  descending  it  will  be  nearer  at 
40°  N.  lat.,  and  in  the  western  states.  It  seems  to  be  elevated 
again  somewhat  in  passing  the  Alleghanies,  and  the  easterly  wind 
blows  in  under  it  in  greater  volume  after  it  has  passed  than 
elsewhere. 

That  current  constitutes  the  middle  story.  All  below  it  is  the 
surface  story, — all  above  it  the  upper  story.  Various  names  have 
been  given  that  middle  story.  In  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  weather" 
I  called  it  the  "  counter  trade."  Sir  John  Tyndal  in  a  recent 
work  calls  it  the  "  upper  trade."  It  is  more  generally  knoAvn  as 
the  "  Equatorial  current."  For  convenience  I  shall  call  it  the 
"trade  current"  or  "trade  story."  It  maybe  seen  in  a  large 
proportion  of  the  days  of  the  year,  and  known  by  its  elevation, 
direction,  and  the  character  of  the  clouds  which  form  and  float 
in  it.  At  the  latitude  of  40°,  it  moves  when  unexcited  at  the 
rate  of  about  twelve  miles  an  hour,  but  its  rate  of  motion  is  some- 
times less  and  very  often  much  more ;  during  intense  storms,  24 
miles  or  more  an  hour.  Meteorologists  attribute  its  change  of 
direction  and  easterly  progression  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis.  If  the  reason  assigned  were  not  intrinsically  absurd,  the 
fact  that  it  moves  slowly  sometimes  and  at  others  very  rapidly, 
(as  the  motion  of  the  earth  is  uniform,)  would  seem  to  be  a  con- 
clusive refutation  of  the  theory.  But  I  am  to  waive  all  theoretic 
discussion  till  all  the  facts  have  been  passed  in  review.  The  dif- 
ference in  its  rate  of  progress  and  that  of  the  conditions  also  under 
different  circumstances,  is  open  to  the  observation  of  all,  and  I 
commend  it  to  your  constant  attention. 

There  are  three  and  but  three  kinds  of  condensation  or  cloud 
furniture,  found  in  the  surface  story ;  mist,  scud  and  fog.  Of 
these  the  scud  and  fog  are  peculiar  to  that  story.  The  mists  oc- 
cur in  all  the  stories  by  day  and  by  night.  They  have  been  met 


32  TIliC    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

with  by  aeronauts  when  invisible  from  the  earth,  and  they  are 
often  sufficient  to  dim  the  light  of  the  sun  on  a  cloudless  day.  As 
they  are  nearly  transparent,  that  is  their  only  effect.  Fog  and 
cloud  are  of  similar  constitution.  They  have  form,  are  not  trans- 
parent— and  reflect  the  light ;  and  since  the  time  of  De  Saussure  and 
Kratzenstein  who  experimented  and  investigated  the  subject  with 
great  care  in  the  lowlands  and  upon  the  mountains,  the  opinion 
generally  received  has  been,  that  both  clouds  and  fogs  are  alike 
composed  of  vesicular  vapor,  and  that  the  vesicles  are  hollow. 
Those  meteorologists  and  others  measured  them,  and  tabulated 
their  measurements  (see  Kaemtz's  Meteorology,  page  111.) 
This  has  been  recently  questioned  in  this  country,  but  not  on  re- 
liable evidence  or  authority.  I  do  not  propose  to  discuss  the 
question.  The  fact  that  fog  and  cloud  differ  from  rnist  is  unques- 
tionable, and  it  is  not  material  in  this  connection,  whether  owing 
to  the  size  of  globu'es  of  water,  or  to  hollow  vesicles.  Clouds 
in  one  story  and  mist  in  another  may  be  observed  and  contrasted 
at  least  twenty  times  a  year.  Moreover,  the  fact  that  fogs  are 
sometimes  vesicular  is  patent  to  the  naked  eye.  I  have  myself 
observed  and  you  may  observe  it.  After  being  out  in  a  morning 
fog  which  forms  in  the  valleys  in  still,  clear  weather,  I  have  ob- 
served and  you  may  observe  the  small  vesicles  adhering  to  the 
nap  of  your  hat  or  your  coat,  and  you  may  see  them  rising  from 
the  surface  of  rivers  in  white  lines  and  wisps,  like  the  fibro  cirrus 
of  which  I  shall  hereafter  speak. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  fog  peculiar  to  the  surface  story.  Both 
form  in  still,  clear  weather,  and  disappear  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day.  The  first  or  low  fogs  rest  on  the  surface.  They  form  in 
the  valleys  and  over  streams  and  rivers,  rising  to  the  height  of 
from  one  to  two  hundred  feet,  being  very  dense  and  obscuring  the 
vision  of  those  whom  they  envelope.  Their  upper  surface  is  often 
irregular,  presenting  rounded  elevations  like  those  which  are  gen- 
erally seen  upon  the  upper  surface  of  clouds.  They  are  a  splen- 
did addition  to  the  landscape  when  over  looked  from  an  elevation 
like  the  Catskill  Mountain  House,  just  after  sunrise,  like  so  many 
white  ribbons  stretched  north  and  south  over  the  valleys  to  the 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC  -SYSTEM.  .  33 

eastward.  The  high  fog  is  practically  of  more  consequence.  It 
also  forms  in  the  night, — generally  towards  morning,  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  surface  story,  from  1500  to  2000  feet  above  the  earth. 
It  obscures  the  sun  as  effectually  as  cloud,  and  induces  those 
who  do  not  understand  it  to  suppose  that  it  is  going  to  rain,  but 
intelligent,  practical  men  who  do  understand  it,  will  tell  you  that 
it  is  nothing  but  high  fog,  and  will  clear  away  by  10  o'clock.  It 
is  generally  dissipated  by  that  time  or  soon  after,  and  I  think  if 
you  will  reflect,  most  of  you  will  remember  the  peculiar  intensity 
of  the  sun's  rays,  as,  .upon  some  such  occasion  it  first  shone  upon 
you  after  the  fog  was  dissipated.  It  is  of  practical  importance  to 
distinguish  this  species  of  fog  from  cloud.  It  forms  when  the 
surface  story  is  still  and  there  is  no  wind.  It  is  nearer  the  earth 
than  the  rain-bearing  clouds.  It  is  uniformly  dense  and  regular, 
without  contrast  of  light  and  shade  or  diversity  of  form  ;  while- 
even  the  rain-bearing  stratus  of  the  second  story  it  more  or  lets 
irregular  in  density  with  fragmentary  variations  of  light  and  shade, 
and  in  addition  to  these  there  will  be  an  entire  absence  of  such 
changes  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  other  respects,  as  usually 
attend,  and  are  produced  by  an  approaching  stormy  condition. 
These  facts  will  enable  you  to  distinguish  it. 

We  come  now  to  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  strangely 
neglected  species  of  cloud,  seen  only  in  the  surface  story, — the 
scud.  But  before  we  enter  upon  the  examination  of  them  and 
the  other  varieties  of  cloud,  it  will  be  well  to  look  for  a  moment 
at  the  received  nomenclature  of  clouds. 

In  1818,  Mr.  Luke  Howard  published  that  nomenclature,  and 
it  has  since  been  generally  .received..  He  classified  the  clouds  by 
the  following  names :  Cirrus,  Stratus,  Cumulus,  Cirro-stratus 
Cumulo-stratus,  Cirro-cumulus  and  Nimbus.  This  nomenclature 
was  founded  upon  the  peculiarities  of  structure  alone,  without  ref- 
erence to  location,  or  any  other  characteristic  or  quality.  It  is 
for  that  reason  exceedingly  imperfect,  and  was  so  considered  by 
Mr.  Howard  himself  in  the  later  years  of  his  life.  The  annexed 
diagrams  show  the  different  forms  as  originally  published  by  Mr. 
Howard,  and  copied  in  all  our  text-books  from  that  time  to  this. 
3 


34 


THE  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM. 
FIG.  5. 


THE  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM. 
FIG.  6. 


35 


lllilll 


36  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Upon  the  first  diagram,  marked  by  a  single  bird,  are  attempted 
representations  of  four  forms  of  Cirrus.  Three  of  them  repre- 
sent curls  or  wisps,  sometimes  call  the  "  curled  clouds  "  or  "  mares 
tails."  The  fibres  as  represented  on  the  diagram  are  very  large, 
and  coarse,  but  as  seen  in  nature  they  are  Jine  and  thready.  On 
the  upper  right  hand  corner  there  is  an  attempted  representation 
of  the  linear  cirrus,  composed  of  long,  straight,  white  threads  or 
lines.  Howard  describes  this  form  of  cirrus  as  sometimes  extend- 
ing from  southwest  to  northeast  in  England,  and  from  one  horizon 
to  the  other.  It  is  not  often  so  extensive  in  this  country,  but  it  is 
very  often  seen  as  the  outlying,  advance  condensation  of  a  north- 
easterly storm,  approaching  from  the  west  and  extending  in  the 
same  general  direction.  Another  form  of  cirrus  is  attempted  to 
be  represented  on  the  upper  part  of  the  second  diagram  by  one 
bird,  and  consists  of  small  irregular  patches  of  delicate,  thin, 
white  cloud.  This  also  is  a  very  common  form  in  this  country, 
and  it  may  be  observed  that  the  cirrus  is  generally  seen  taking 
some  one  of  these  forms  or  some  modification  of  them. 

Remembering  that  the  cirrus  is  always  in  the  upper  story — 
that  it  is  always  white  and  thin,  and  generally  fibrous  or  thready, 
with  slender  filaments  contrasting  with  the  azure  of  the  sky 
though  sometimes  misty  and  without  observable  form,  and  at  others 
in  thin  sheets  or  parallel  bands,  and  is  the  highest  form  seen,  you 
will  soon  learn  to  distinguish  it. 

The  second  form,  represented  upon  the  first  diagram  only,  by 
two  birds,  is  the  cirro-cumulus.  It  is  represented  as  having  the 
elevation  of  the  cirrus,  but  consisting  of  small  separated  and 
isolated  masses,  like  a  collection  of  fieeces  of  wool  arranged  for 
exhibition  without  touching  each  other.  Howard  gave  it  the 
name  of  Cirro-cumulus  because  it  had  the  elevation  of  the  cirrus 
and  was  in  small  heaps.  It  is,  in  fact,  cirrus  broken  into  small 
portions.  This  form  of  cloud  is  rarely  seen  in  this  country.  It 
does  sometimes  occur  in  the  upper  story  during  long  continued 
droughts  or  set  fair  weather — perhaps  half  a  dozen  times  a  year. 

The  next  form  represented  upon  the  first  plate  is  the  Cirro- 
stratus,  indicated  by  three  birds,  and  of  this  he  gives  three  forms. 


THK    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTKM. 


37 


These,  and  modifications  of  them  are  very  common  in  this  country, 
occurring  in  the  upper  part  of  the  trade  or  second  story,  and  are 
especially  visible  in  the  advance  condensation  of  approaching 
storms, —  one  modification  (not  represented,)  being  familiarly 
known  as  the  "  mackerel  sky." 

The  fourth  cloud  represented  upon  the  first  diagram  is  the 
Cumulo-stratus,  having  a  stratus  base  and  a  heaped-up  elevation. 
It  is  represented  on  the  first  plate  by  four  birds.  The  same  form 
is  Feen  upon  the  second  diagram  as  existing  in  a  continuous  belt 
and  not  as  an  isolated  cloud.  This  cumulo-stratus  is  also  a  com- 
mon form  with  us,  and  usually  makes  up  the  eastern  portion  of 
our  showery  conditions  while  the  thunder  and  lightning  prevail, 
as  in  the  condition  whi<  h  we  have  described  as  having  passed 
over  Springfield  in  August,  1859.  The  following  diagram  taken 
from  a  daguerreotype  view,  represents  the  Cumulo-stratus  of  an 
approaching  belt  of  showers,  which  was  taken  in  July  of  the  same 
year,  and  which  had  a  stratum  of  linear-cirrus  over  it. 

FIG.  7. 


38 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


The  cirrus  is  a  very  difficult  cloud  to  take  by  the  daguerreotpye 
or  anibrotype  process,  and  the  artist  has  imperfectly  represented 
it  upon  the  cut,  but  it  will  serve  to  guide  your  observation  of  the 
cloud  as  it  exists  perfectly  in  nature  and  may  very  frequently  be 
seen.  It  is  always  white  and  I  have  represented  it  darker  than 
it  is,  to  make  it  more  observable.  The  stratus  is  represented  at 
the  bottom  of  the  2d  diagram. 

As  to  the  Cumulus,  Mr.  Howard  must  have  applied  the  term 
to  all  the  various  forms  of  scud,  which  exist  in  masses  or  heaps, 
and  to  the  cumulo-stratus  when  of  moderate  size.  There  is  no 
distinct  cloud  of  that  kind  having  a  distinct  character  or  use.  The 
last  description  of  cloud  mentioned  by  Howard  is  the  Nimbus, 
which  is  nothing  but  a  Cumulo-stratus,  dissolving  in  rain  and 
presenting  a  smooth  appearance.  The  Fame  appearance  precisely, 

FIG.  8. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  39 

is  presented  by  all  our  approaching  thunder-showers,  which  have  a 
smooth  appearance  because  the  falling  rain  obscures  the  inequali- 
ties of  the  cumulo-stratus  clouds  of  which  they  are  composed. 
The  preceding  is  Howard's  representation  of  this  form  of  cloud, 
exhibited  separately  from  the  others.  It  is  obvious  that  this  is  not 
a  distinct  form  of  cloud,  and  I  shall  make  no  further  reference  to 
it  except  to  say  that  the  continuous  line  of  curnulo-stratus  which 
is  presented  to  view  by  an  approaching  belt  of  showers  in  summer, 
will  have  the  appearance  of  Nimbu-.  Above,  you  will  ?ee  the 
irregular  tops  and  front  of  the  cloud,  below,  a  smooth,  lighter, 
uniform  surface  from  which  the  rain  is  falling,  and  it  is  not  till 
that  smooth  poriion  gets  over  us,  that  the  rain  descends  upon  us. 
That  lighter,  smoother,  seeming  surface  of  the  cloud  is  a  deception. 
It  is  made  by  the  falling  rain,  which  obscures  the  irregularities  of 
the  mass  of  cloud  above  and  beyond. 

Having  thus  referred  in  a  general  way  to  Mr.  Howard's  nomen- 
clature of  clouds  and  his  illustrations  of  them  founded  on  their 
structure  and  form,  let  us  return  to  a  consideration  of  their  quali- 
ties and  peculiarities,  in  connectron  with  the  stories  of  the  atmos- 
phere, commencing  with  the  scud. 

Scud,  form  and  float  in  all  the  winds  of  the  surface  story,  which 
blow  with  any  force.  Light  airs  and  breezes,  are  felt  during  the 
fair  weather  state,  but  they  are  casual,  feeble  and  without  scud. 
Scud  form  in  all  the  winds  which  are  parts  or  incidents  of  condi- 
tions. The  winds,  strictly  speaking,  which  are  parts  or  incidents 
of  the  stormy  conditions,  rarely  blow  from  the  south,  north,  east 
or  west,  but  from  the  Intermediate  points  of  south  east,  south-west, 
north-east  or  north-west.  This  results  from  the  fact  that  the  con- 
ditions, after  they  curve  in  a  low  latitude,  move  in  a  north-east 
direction.  The  lateral  winds  of  a  condition  will  therefore  be 
northwesterly  and  southeasterly.  The  northeasterly  wind  moves 
in  under  the  storm,  in  opposition  to  its  line  of  progression.  The 
southwesterly  follows  after  in  the  same  line.  The  northeasterly 
wind  is  very  common  east  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  less  common 
west  of  them  But  we  shall  speak  of  all  these  winds  more  par- 
ticularly hereafter.  Our  object  now  is  to  impress  upon  you  the 


40 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


fact  that  they  form  the  principal  cardinal  winds  of  the  differing 
conditions. 

Such  being  the  character  of  our  winds,  we  may  contemplate 
the  scud  as  they  exist  and  are  to  be  observed  in  different  winds. 
And  first,  of  the  northwest  scud. 

These  scud  are  seen  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  in  every 
conceivable  shape.  In  the  summer  season,  they  assume  more  or 
less  the  cumulus  form,  in  distinct,  rounded  masses,  and  are  white 
unless  so  dense  as  entirely  to  intercept  the  rays  of  the  sun,  when 
their  under  surfaces  will  be  dark.  The  following  diagram  shows 
approximately  the  character  of  this  description  of  scud,  as  they 
appear  in  summer,  and  as  they  floated  over  the  heads  of  The 
American  Association  on  their  way  to  Amherst,  in  1859.  '  The 
view  was  taken  looking  to  the  north. 

FIG.  9. 


In  the  fall  of  the  year,  a  distinct,  rounded  form  is  less  preva- 
lent, and  they  assume  more  of  the  stratus  form,  and  float  in  larger 
and  darker  irregular  masses.  The  following  diagram  is  an  im- 
perfect copy  of  a  daguerreotype  view,  taken  at  8  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  looking  to  the  northwest,  when  a  heavy  southeaster  was 
clearing  off. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


41 


FlG.  10. 


The  rain  ceased  towards  morning,  the  body  of  the  storm  had 
passed  to  the  eastward,  and  was  still  visible,  black  and  gloomy,  in 
the  east  and  southeast.  The  retreating  western  edge  of  the  storm, 
thin  and  melting,  is  exhibited  on  the  upper  part  of  the  diagram, 
with  an  abrupt  edge  of  stratus  on  its  edge.  That  western  por- 
t'on  with  its  edge,  followed  rapidly  the  body  of  the  storm,  and  by 
10  o'clock  it  was  low  down  in  the  southeast.  Between  that  wes- 
tern edge  of  the  storm  and  the  horizon  the  sky  was  clear  and 
cloudless,  except  that  near  the  horizon  small  masses  of  northwest 
scud  were  forming,  which  are  represented  upon  the  cut.  The  air 
was  then  still,  but  the  northwest  wind  soon  followed,  and  the  scud 
rose  towards  the  zenith,  pursuing  the  retreating  edge  of  the  storm. 
At  10  o'clock  the  following  view  was  taken,  the  wind  having 
freshened  almost  to  a  gale,  and  the  scud  in  wild,  irregular  masses 
covering  all  the  northern  part  of  the  sky,  and  hurrying  /HI  to  the 
southeast. 


42 


THE    ATMOSPHEKIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.  11. 


The  storm  soon  disappeared  from  sight,  but  the  wind  continued 
to  blow  all  day  and  until  toward  night  in  the  same  direction, 
filled  with  the  same  wild,  irregular  scud.  Later  in  the  season  and 
early  in  the  spring,  these  scud  are  frequently  very  large  and  dark 
and  gloomy,  coalescing  and  covering  the  sky,  and  dropping  for  a 
brief  period  flurries  of  snow,  but  they  may  always  be  known  by 
the  direction  and  character  of  the  wind  they  float  in,  and  their 
relation  to  some  stormy  condition  which  has  passed  by  and  cleared 
off.  I  need  not  be  more  particular  ;  you  will  have  fifty  oppor- 
tunities in  the  year  to  observe  them,  and  a  single  glance  for  a 
short  period  whenever  the  wind  blows  from  that  quarter,  will 
make  their  characteristics  as  familiar  to  you  as  those  of  the  fur- 
niture of  your  room. 

The  northeast  and  southeast  scud  are  of  a  d'fferent  character. 
The  northeast  scud  may  be  seen  running  under  the  outlying,  ad- 
vance condensation,  towards  the  southwest,  and  the  body  of  the 
storm  approaching  from  that  quarter.  They  rarely  assume  a 
cumulus  form,  but  are  almost  always  in  irregular  patches,  never 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  43 

white  but  always  of  an  ashy  grey.  The  following  is  a  view  of 
these  scud,  as  they  were  running  from  the  northeast  to  the  south- 
west, twelve  hours  before  the  rain  reached  us,  and  while  the  pre- 
cipitating portion  of  the  storm  was  150  miles  to  the  west  of  us. 

FIG.  12. 


Over  these  scud,  layers  of  cirrus  and  cirro-stratus  in  the  second 
and  third  stories  were  visible  between  the  masses  of  scud,  mov- 
ing to  the  northeast, — the  advance  condensation  of  the  storm ; 
but  they  could  not  be  represented.  As  the  storm  approached 
nearer  these  masses  of  scud  became  larger  and  denser,  and  be- 
fore the  rain  set  in  they  wholly  filled  the  upper  part  of  the  sur- 
face story,  and  obscured  the  storm  clouds  above  from  view. 
The  northeast  wind  and  the  scud  continued  to  move  to  the  south- 
west, until  after  the  body  of  the  storm  had  passed  to  the  east- 
ward, the  rain  had  ceased,  and  the  layers  of  cirrus  and  stratus 
were  again  visible  through  the  dissolving  scud.  I  have  thus  des- 
cribed somewhat  minutely  these  northeasterly  storm  scud.  I  have 
watched  their  progress  during  the  continuance  of  these  storms,  in 


44 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


hundreds  of  instances.  Those  of  you  who  live  east  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  will  have  at  least  twenty  opportunities  for  observing 
them  in  the  course  of  a  year.  I  beg  you  to  observe  them  care- 
fully, for  a  knowledge  of  them  and  of  their  movement  will  be  of 
importance  with  reference  to  another  branch  of  our  inquiry. 

The  southeast  scud  do  not  differ  materially  from  the  northeast, 
in  color  or  form.  Perhaps  they  are  not  so  uniformly  ashy-grey 
as  the  northeast,  but  they  are  never  black  or  white  like  the  scud 
which  run  from  the  westerly  points.  The  following  diagram  rep- 
resents a  body  of  southeast  scud,  moving  during  a  heavy  blow, 
towards  a  storm  which  was  then  at  the  northwest.  They  were 
very  low  down,  as  their  appearance  indicates,  not  more  than  1500 
feet  high.  And  they  were  very  wild  in  appearance,  but  that  wild- 
ness  could  not  be  represented. 

The  view  was  taken  looking  northeast,  the  zenith  and  whole 
western  sky  being  obscured  by  them. 

FIG.  13. 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  45 

Opportunities  for  observing  the  southeast  scud  are  less  frequent, 
but  they  are  sufficiently  numerous.  These  southeast  scud  float  in 
the  southeast  wind,  towards,  under,  and  frequently  quite  across 
the  long,  stormy  conditions  to  which  they  are  incident.  I  have 
frequently  seen  the  southeast  wind,  blowing  under  and  entirely 
across  and  beyond  the  body  of  a  belt  of  showers  or  storm,  and 
gradually  ceasing  its  movement,  while  the  northwest  wind  was 
blowing  in  under  it  and  under  the  retreating  edge  of  the  storm. 

The  southeily  and  southwesterly  scud  are  less  distinct  in  char- 
acter than  any  of  the  others.  When  they  blow  from  the  south- 
southwest,  towards  and  under  a  belt  of  showers,  in  the  summer 
season,  they  very  much  resemble  in  form  and  appearance  the  scud 
of  the  easterly  winds.  The  following  cut  represents  a  view  of 
them  taken  by  the  daguerreotype  as  floating  in  a  south  wind, 
in  the  summer  season,  towards  an  approaching  belt  of  showers. 

FIG.  14. 


But  when,  after  a  storm  or  belt  of  showers  has  passed  by,  and 
the  wind  is  hauling  or  veering  through  the  west  and  southwest, 
toward  the  northwest,  the  scud  become  whiter  and  more  regular 
in  form. 


46 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


I  have  thus  given  you  an  outline  of  the  character  of  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  scud,  and  I  wish  to  impress  upon  you  the  impor- 
tance of  observing  and  becoming  familiar  with  them,  that  you 
may  better  understand  the  organization  of  the  various  conditions 
the  rules  for  prognostication,  and  the  motive-force  of  the  system. 

We  come  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  clouds  of  the  second 
or  trade  story.  These  are  all  of  the  stratus  form.  They  are  all 
rain-beai  ing  clouds,  and  piecipitate  the  moisture  which  they  bring 
from  the  ti  opics.  There  are  three  forms  of  the  stratus.  The 
first  is  the  cino-stiatus,  seen  in  the  imperfect  condensation  which 
thins  out  in  font  and  at  the  sides  of  the  body  of  the  storm.  The 
10!  owing  is  a  representation  of  cirro-stratus  as  taken  by  the 
daguerreotype  and  seen  in  the  advance  condensation  of  a  north- 
easter. The  scud  had  commenced  running  under  it,  but  weie 
small,  and  are  omitted.  There  was  a  light  stratum  of  cirrus  in 
the  thiid  story,  which  is  imperfectly  represented. 

FIG.  15. 


As  the  storm  came  on,  the  bands  of  cirro-stratus  were  seen  to  have 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


47 


coalesced,  and  before  the  rain  reached  us,  they  had  formed  a  dense, 
unbioken  stratus,  that  could  be  seen  in  spots  between  the  scud, 
until  the  latter  had  become  so  numeious  that  a  view  of  the  dense 
mass  of  stratus  could  not  be  obtained.  It  is  from  the  stratus  of 
the  N.  E.  and  S.  E.  sto.  ms,  that  we  obtain  most  of  our  rains  in 
the  autumn,  wintei,  and  spring.  In  the  summer  reason  most  of 
our  rain  falls  from  the  cumulo-stratus,  the  remaining  form  of 
stratus,  and  the  prevailing  form  in  the  eastern  portion  of  our  belts 
of  showers.  It  is  among  the  masses  of  cumulo-stratus  in  such  a 
belt,  that  the  lightning  plays  and  the  thunder  is  heard,  and  it  is 
from  the  base  of  some  cumulo-stratus  which  settles  down  into  the 
surface  story,  that  the  lightning  descends  and  strikes  upon  the 

FIG.  16. 


48  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

earth ;  and  it  is  from  the  rounded  thunder-head  of  the  snme  cloud, 
that  the  lightning  flashes  up,  to  the  layer  of  cirrus  in  the  story 
above ;  and  in  the  chamber  between  these  two  stories,  that  the 
thunder  reverberates  and  rolls,  till  it  dies  away  in  the  distance. 
The  preceding  diagram  will  give  you  some  idea  of  the  three  strata, 
when  the  stratus  alone  is  forming  in  the  middle  story.  It  is  made 
up  from  observation,  for  a  view  of  the  three  strata  coexistent, 
cannot  be  taken  by  daguerreotype.  It  represents,  what  I  believe 
is  invariably  true,  that  the  dense  layer  of  stratus  has  its  irregular 
rounded  projections  on  the  upper  surface,  though  they  do  not  tower 
up  like  those  of  the  cumulo-stratus. 

In  this  connection  I  quote  from  Mr.  Redfield  as  confirmatory, 
his  observation  of  the  stratus  and  scud. 

In  a  series  of  elaborate  articles,  substantially  reviewing  the 
whole  subject,  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  for 
1846,  he  says: 

"In  nearly  all  great  storms  which  are  accompanied  with  ra'n, 
there  appear  two  distinct  classes  of  clouds,  one  of  which,  com- 
prising the  storm  scuds  in  the  active  portion  of  the  gale,  has 
already  been  noticed.  Above  this  is  an  extended  stratum  of 
stratus  cloud,  which  is  found  moving  with  the  general  or  local 
current  of  the  lower  atmosphere  which  overlies  the  storm.  It 
covers  not  only  the  area  of  rain,  but  often  extends  greatly  beyond 
this  limit,  over  a  part  of  the  dry  portion  of  the  storm,  partly  in 
a  broken  or  detached  state.  This  stratus  cloud  is  often  concealed 
from  view  by  the  nimbus,  and  scud  clouds  in  the  rainy  portion  of 
the  storm,  but  by  careful  observation  may  be  sufficiently  noticed 
to  determine  the  general  uniformity  of  its  specific  course,  and  ap- 
proximately, its  general  elevation. 

"  The  more  usual  course  of  this  extended  cloud  stratum,  in  the 
United  States,  is  from  some  point  in  the  horizon  between  S.  S.  W. 
and  W.  S.  W.  Its  course  and  velocity  do  not  appear  influenced 
in  any  perceptible  degree  by  the  activity  or  direction  of  the  storm- 
wind  which  prevails  beneath  it.  On  the  posterior  or  dry  side  of 
the  gale,  it  often  disappears  before  the  arrival  of  the  newly  con- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  49 

densed  cumuli  and  cumulo- stratus  which  not  unfrequently  float  in 
the  colder  winds,  on  this  side  of  the  gale." 

"  The  general  height  of  the  great  stratus  cloud  which  covers  a 
storm,  in  those  parts  of  the  United  IStates  which  are  near  the 
Atlantic,  can  not  differ  greatly  fom  one  mile;  and  perhaps  is 
oftener  below  than  above  this  elevation." 

The  one  great  object  of  Mr.  Redfield,  in  all  his  observations 
and  investigations,  was  to  obtain  evidence  to  establish  his  theory, 
that  the  surface  winds  of  all  storms  aie  revolving  winds  ;  and  he 
overlooked  many  of  the  important  facts  we  have  been  consider- 
ing. But  with  reference  to  the  stratus  and  scud  of  storms  his 
conceptions  were  clear.  Of  the  theory  which  he  sustained  with 
great  research  and  eminent  ability,  I  shall  speak  in  a  more  ap- 
propriate place. 

The  remaining  form  of  cloud,  and  the  only  form  seen  in  the 
upper  story  is  the  cirrus.  I  have  never  been  able  to  get  a  good 
daguerreotype  or  ambrotype  view  of  it.  It  is  uniformly  white  or 
whitish,  and  for  that  rea-on  exceedingly  difficult  to  take.  The  de- 
scription already  given  will  be  sufficient  to  guide  you  in  your 
observation  of  it,  and  I  beg  you  carefully  to  observe  it.  It  is 
ordinarily  the  first  seen  as  the  advance  condensation  of  a  storm, 
and  bears  an  important  part  in  the  organization  of  all  the  con- 
ditions. 

I  have  thus  given  an  outline  of  the  stories  of  the  atmosphere 
and  their  cloud  furniture.  Much  of  it  will  be  new  to  you.  I 
know  of  no  author  who  seems  to  have  had  any  distinct  concep- 
tion of  the  stories  of  the  atmosphere  and  their  peculiar  clouds 
except  Mr.  Ruskin,  the  author  of  Modern  Painters,  and  his  con- 
ceptions were  limited  to  the  form  and  appearance,  and  d;d  not  ex- 
tend to  their  qualities  and  uses.  We  are  now  prepared  to  return 
to  the  organization  of  the  conditions  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Recur  to  Springfield  condition  of  Aug.  1859 — Analysis  of  it — was  an  organ- 
ized condition — composed  of  three  strata  of  cloud  and  two  lateral  winds, 
all  connected  and  moving  together — extent  of  the  several  parts — manner 
in  which  they  operated — Did  not  contain  any  vortex — southerly  wind 
blew  entirely  across  under  the  body  of  it — Facts  in  relation  to  the  other 
conditions  as  a  class — Rain-bearing  clouds  lie  in  parallel  bands — parallel 
with  the  axis — sometimes  the  cirrus  also — sometimes  the  scud — Other  facts 
in  relation  to  this  class  of  condition — wind  the  strongest  which  blows  from 
the  surface  which  is  most  moist — more  common  than  any  other  class  of 
conditions — Their  occurrence  in  Bermuda,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley — the  Southern  Hemisphere — a  succession  of  them  met  be- 
tween the  tropics  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan — Have  all  the  characteristics 
in  that  hemisphere  that  they  have  in  this — Northeast  storms — most  common 
east  of  the  Alleghanies  in  this  country — not  known  on  the  Pacific  coast — 
rare  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere — Description  of  them — manner  in  which 
the  winds  change  in  them — Irregular  conditions — Hurricanes — description 
of  them — places  where  most  frequent — most  common  in  West  Indies — 
sometimes  occur  upon  land  in  this  country — description  of  one — Tornado 
— description  of  it. 

I  recur  now  in  the  first  place,  to  the  condition  described  as 
havhig  passed  over  Springfield  in  August,  1859.  That  this  was 
an  organized  condition  is  obvious.  In  the  language  of  the  dic- 
tionaries, it  was  "  composed  of  several  individual  parts,  each  of 
which  had  its  proper  function  and  conduced  to  its  existence."  Of 
its  body  and  wings  of  \vind,  we  have  already  spoken  in  a  general 
way.  Let  us  look  now  at  the  parts  which  composed  its  body,  and 
their  motions  and  functions.  That  body  was  composed  of  three 
strata  of  clouds.  There  was,  in  the  first  place,  a  layer  of  cirrus  in 
the  upper  story.  There  was,  in  the  next  place,  a  layer  of  cumulo- 
stratus  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  trade  story  and  of  dense  stratus 
in  the  middle  portion  of  that  story,  extending  to  the  western  edge, 
gradually  thinning,  breaking  up  and  dissolving.  There  was  in 
the  lower  story  a  stratum  or  layer  of  southerly  surface  wind, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  51 

blowing  in  under  the  other  strata,  humid  and  moist,  and  filled 
Avith  patches  and  dense  masses  of  scud ;  and  all  these  were  in 
some  way,  and  had  been  for  the  days  of  its  existence,  and  contin- 
ued to  be  for  at  least  one  day  longer,  working  or  acting  together, 
and  traveling,  as  relative  parts,  maintaining  their  relative  positions, 
to  produce  and  deposit  the  rain.  The  thunder  and  lightning  were 
incidents,  evidential  of  the  intense  action  which  produced  the 
strong  wind  and  the  rain  in  large  quantities,  but  not  essential  to  the 
production  of  either.  The  layer  of  cirrus  in  the  upper  story,  and 
all  the  forms  of  stratus  in  the  second  story,  were  moving  steadily 
to  the  E.  N.  East,  yet  the  whole  body  had  a  drift  to  tl  e  eastward. 
I  shall  discuss  hereafter  the  occasion  of  that  drift.  At  present 
I  confine  myself  to  the  organization  of  the  condition. 

Now  here  we  have  the  several  parts  which  I  have  named,  work- 
ing harmoniously  and  continuously  together,  created  and  guided 
by  the  Giver  of  all  good,  to  distribute  the  blessing  of  needed 
rain  over  the  earih.  The  condition  thus  organized,  existed  and 
drifted  for  several  days,  passing  beyond  our  ken,  out  upon  the 
Atlantic.  Some  creative  and  vital  force  must  have  organized 
and  continued  it.  What  was  that  force?  While  the  condition 
was  passing  over  Springfield,  Prof.  Henry,  in  a  lecture,  was  urg- 
ing the  theory  that  all  such  conditions,  and  all  conditions  and 
winds  were  originated  by  the  heating  of  the  air  at  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  continued  by  the  giving  out  of  latent  heat  from  the 
condensing  vapor,  constituting  a  vortex  which  sucked  up  the  sur- 
face atmosphere,  and  produced  the  winds.  I  shall  hereafter  de- 
monstrate to  you  that  the  theory  is  unsupported  by  a  single  fact 
in  nature.  But  I  wish  now  to  allude  to  some  facts  then  existing. 
The  lateral  winds  of  that  condition  were  at  least  200  miles  in 
breadth  on  the  eastern  side,  and  150  on  the  west,  and  2500  feet 
in  depth,  moving  at  the  rate  of  at  least  20  miles  an  hour.  The 
whole  width  of  the  body  of  the  condition  from  which  rain  was 
falling,  did  not  exceed  at  any  time,  100  miles,  and  that  space 
could  not  have  furnished  a  vortex  sufficiently  large  to  create  or 
receive  the  winds.  Can  any  sane  or  honest  minded  man  believe 
it  could  ? 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

In  the  second  place  ihe  N.  W.  wind  did  not  blow  at  any  time, 
with  any  fo;-ce  intooi*  under  the  body  of  the  condition,  but  fol- 
lowed af'er  it  as  it  retreated  to  the  east,  vis.bly  piling  itself  up 
in  the  rear,  and  elevating  the  Barome  er.  In  ihe  third  place,  no 
part  of  the  condition  reached  above  five  miles  from  the  earth,  and 
the  vision  could  be  extended  a  long  distance  over  it  as  it  approached 
from  the  west,  and  so  over  it  again  as  it  receded  to  the  east,  and 
no  vortex  which  could  have  taken  up  both  these  winds,  could  have 
existed  without  attaining  great  elevation  and  being  seen,  and 
nothing  of  the  kind  was  visible.  And  in  the  fourth  place,  a  i'act 
conclusive,  after  the  intense  and  precipitating  portion  of  the  con- 
dition, (where  the  vortex  was  assumed  to  be.)  had  passed  by, 
and  the  rain  had  ceased,  the  layer  of  ci  rus  in  the  upper  story 
and  the  layer  of  melting  and  dissolving  stratus  in  the  trade  story, 
were  distinctly  visible,  occupying  undisturbed  and  unperforated 
their  relative  positions,  and  the  southerly  wind  was  moving  with 
its  remnants  of  scud  in  its  relative  position  under  them,  toward 
the  western  edge  of  the  condition  far  beyond  the  place  where  the 
creating  vortex  was  assumed  to  be.  If  that  southerly  wind  had 
been  created  by  the  suction  of  a  vortex,  it  would  have  obeyed  the 
law  of  its  creation  and  gone  up  the  vortex.  But  there  it  was, 
visible  from  the  seat  I  occupied  during  the  lecture,  moving  as  I 
have  seen  it  a  hundred  times,  AND  WITHIN  2,000  FEET  OF  THE 
LECTUHER'S  HEAD,  a  conclusive  refutation  of  the  fundamental 
doctrine  of  his  lecture.  In  the  debate  which  followed,  I  alluded 
to  it,  and  after  the  lecture  was  over,  I  pointed  it  out  to  several 
gentlemen  who  were  staying  with  me  at  the  same  hotel.  In  that 
debate  it  was  conceded,  and  the  fact  cannot  be  denied,  that  if  there 
was  such  a  vortex,  the  wind  and  scud  must  ascend  it  and  could 
be  seen  to  do  so.  And  I  offered  Prof.  Henry  fifty  dollars  a  scud 
for  every  one  he  would  prove  to  have  been  seen  so  ascending. 
Prof.  LoomL  asked  for  a  renewal  of  the  proposition,  saving  he 
was  " up  for  a  speculation"  It  was  renewed  AS  A  STANDING 
OFFER  and  in  good  faith,  although  the  discovery  of  a  single  vortex 
would  sweep  away  all  I  possess.  It  is  now  ten  years  since  and 
no  vortex  has  been  discovered,  or  money  called  for.  Nor  will 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  63 

there  be  (although  Prof.  Henry  has  more  than  100  observers  at 
his  service)  until  the  air  of  his  parlor,  by  being  heated,  shall  be 
made  to  ascend  through  the  floors,  and  carry  the  furniture  with 
it  to  his  attic. 

But  it  is  not  my  purpose  now  to  discuss  the  theory,  or  any 
theory  in  relation  to  the  organizing  and  vital  force  which  creates 
these  conditions.  I  content  myself  with  putting  these  facts  on 
the  record  for  consideration  hereafter. 

There  is  another  important  fact  in  relation  to  all  the  conditions 
of  this  class  which  should  not  be  omitted.  The  edges  of  the  body 
when  abrupt,  extend  from  a  southwesterly  to  a  northeasterly 
point,  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  condition  and  all  the  forms  of 
the  stratus  condensation  in  the  trade-story,  lie  in  distinct  bands 
parallel  with  that  axis  and  conforming  to  their  line  of  motion. 
This  is  frequently  the  case  a^o  with  the  layer  of  cirrus  in  the 
upper  story.  And  the  same  fact  may  not  unfrequently  be 
observed  in  respect  to  the  northwest  scud  which  follow  it.  They 
are  often  arranged  in  lines,  corresponding  to  the  bands  of  stratus 
and  cirrus.  This  arrangement  of  the  stratus  in  bands,  is  more 
distinctly  observable  in  the  less  intense  conditions  of  this  class, 
like  that  which  we  have  already  described.  They  are  also  to  be 
seen  in  all  the  classes  of  conditions.  In  the  storms  which  come 
up  the  coast  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  move  more  directly  north, 
the  bands  of  condensation  may  be  observed  lying  more  northerly 
and  southerly,  conforming  to  the  line  of  motion.  This  fact  has  an 
important  bearing  upon  the  question  to  be  hereafter  consideied, 
relative  to  the  organizing  and  continuing  force  of  the  conditions, 
and  I  beg  you  to  ob-erve  it.  It  is  visible  in  most  of  our  conditions 
when  clearing  off  from  the  northwest,  and  in  that  direction. 

There  are  some  other  peculiaiities  attending  these  belts  of 
showers  to  which  it  may  be  well  to  refer.  They  are  sometimes 
composed  of  imperfectly  connected  showers  or  masses  of  cumulo- 
stratus,  and  when  the  break  between  them  passes  over  any  given 
point,  a  shower  will  pass  to  the  north  and  another  to  the  south  of 
it,  and  in  such  cases,  people  will  say  "  the  showers  go  round  us.  * 
They  sometimes  move  too,  in  the  manner  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing diagram : 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


FlG    17. 


And  in  such  cases,  the  observer  must  look  in  the  southwest,  and 
not  at  the  west  or  northwest  for  the  particular  pot  tion  or  cloud, 
which  is  to  precipitate  rain  upon  his  locality. 

This  is  the  general  course  and  manner  of  progress  of  these  belts 
of  showers,  but  there  is  one  other  peculiarity  which  should  be 
noticed.  The  lateral  wind  is  always  the  strongest  which  blows 
from  the  surface  that  is  most  moist.  Thus  when  a  belt  is  passing 
south  of  the  Great  Lakes  or  south  of  a  territory  which  is  exten- 
sively marshy,  or  over  a  dry  portion  of  the  country,  when  there 
have  been  heavy  rains  to  the  north  of  it,  the  N.  W.  wind  will 
frequently  supplant  the  S.wind  and  blow  entirely  across  the  boHy 
of  the  condition  and  out  upon  the  southerly  side.  In  some  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  and  especially  south  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
this  is  not  uncommon. 

Before  I  leave  this  cTass  of  conditions  I  wish  to  say  that  they 
are  the  most  common  everywhere.  In  the  following  table  taken 
from  Col.  Reid's  work  on  "  Storms,"  there  is  a  record  of  five  of 
them  which  passed  over  Bermuda  in  December,  1 839. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


55 


Date. 

Hour. 

Direction  of 
Wind. 

Wind's 
Force. 

Weather. 

Bar. 

Ther. 

1839 

Nov.  30 

Midnight. 

S.  S.  E. 

1 

b.  c. 

30  06 

C5 

Dec.     1 

Noon. 

S.  8.  W. 

3 

b.  c. 

30  07 

71 

2 

*• 

S.  \V. 

5 

g.  in.  q. 

29  86 

70 

3 

i 

S.  S.  W. 

3 

.g.  c. 

29  76 

" 

4 

' 

S.  W. 

6 

g.  m.  r. 

29  62 

68 

5 

' 

W.  N.  W. 

5 

p.  q. 

29  56 

" 

6 

1 

N.  W. 

6 

p.  q. 

*29  55 

M 

7 

i 

N.  N.  W. 

5 

b.  c. 

29  78 

70 

ii 

Midnight. 

N.  N.  W. 

3 

b  c. 

29  89 

68 

8 

Noon. 

W.  N.  W. 

a 

b.  c. 

29  f-2 

71 

9 
10 

u 
ii 

S.  S.  W. 
S.  W. 

5 
2 

p.q. 
b.  c. 

29  84 
29  96 

70 

u 

11 

u 

W.  N.  W. 

6 

b  c.  m. 

*29  88 

68 

12 

t; 

S.  S.  W. 

" 

b  v. 

29  99 

69 

13 

u 

N.  N.  bv  W. 

" 

b.v. 

30  01 

66 

14 

M 

N.  N.  'W. 

5 

b.  c.  v. 

30  06 

64 

u 

Midnight. 

N.  W. 

2 

b.  c.  q. 

30  05 

63 

15 

Noon. 

S.  W.  by  S. 

6 

g.  m.  r. 

29  72 

65 

it 

P.  M.       2 

S.  S.  W. 

7 

in.  q.  r. 

29  92 

64 

u 

"          4 

S.  S.  W. 

u 

g.  m.  q.  r. 

29  6) 

u 

u 

"          6 

W.  S.  W. 

u 

q.  w. 

*29  53 

M 

« 

u           8 

N.  W. 

6 

b.  c.  q. 

29  54 

(( 

14 

"        10 

N.  N.  W. 

u 

b.c. 

29  55 

ft 

16 

Noon. 

N.  W. 

7 

b.  c.  in. 

29  53 

62 

17 

18 

u 

N.  W.  by  N. 
N.  W. 

y 

6 

p.q. 
c.  q. 

29  67 
29  £6 

10 
u 

19 
20 

« 

N.  W.  by  N. 

N.  N.  W. 

7 

u 

m.  q.  r. 
p.  q  c. 

*29  73 
29  89 

59 

58 

21 

(4 

u 

Midnight. 

N.  W.  by  N. 
S.  W. 

6 
1 

C.q. 
b.  c. 

29  96 
29  95 

56 
55 

22 

Dawn. 



0 

u 

Noon. 

S.  S.  W. 

5 

g.  m. 

29  83 

C6 

(( 

P.  M.        4 

S. 

7 

g.  in. 

29  79 

M 

M 

"          6 

S.  S.  E. 

a 

g.  m.  r. 

29  61 

U 

« 

"          8 

S.  S.  E. 

M 

w.  r. 

29  52 

« 

(i 

"        10 

S.  E. 

" 

m.  w.  r. 

29  48 

»« 

23 

Noon. 

S.  W. 

6 

b  c.  m. 

*29  44 

57 

24 

M 

W.  N.  W. 

M 

b.  m. 

29  71 

59 

25 

It, 

W.  N.  W. 

5 

b.c. 

29  88 

56 

26 

" 

N. 

3 

c. 

30  09 

62 

27 

» 

S.  E. 

6 

c.  q.  r. 

30  07 

61 

28 

» 

S.  W. 

6 

c   q. 

29  88 

66 

M 

Midnight. 

S.  S.  W. 

" 

b.c. 

29  76 

65 

29 

Noon. 

S.    W. 

7 

c.  h. 

*29  48 

64 

30 

M 

W.  N.  \V. 

6 

b.  c.  q. 

29  *-3 

55 

31 

|| 

N.  W. 

5 

b.c 

30  12 

58 

b.  indicates  blue  sky  — c.  detached  clouds — r.  rain — v.  visibility  of  objects — q. 
squalls — w.  wet  dew — u.  ugly  threatening  appearance — g.  gloomy  weather — m. 
misty — p.  passing  showers — h.  hail. 

The  foregoing  table  embraces  the  weather  for  a  month,  on  an 
island  where  no  disturbing  element  of  configuration  could  inter 
fere.  Examine  it  carefully,  (it  is  from  a  standard  work  and  re- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


liable)  and  answer  it  to  your  love  of,  or  desire  for  truth  and 
knowledge,  whether  there  are  riot  recorded  there  five  successive, 
passing  conditions,  with  all  the  elements  and  changes  I  have 
described  as  belonging  to  that  class.  The  second  one  of  those 
five  conditions,  I  beg  you  to  observe,  was  (like  some  of  those 
which  occur  here  as  I  have  stated)  feeb'e  and  short  and  did  not 
precipitate.  It  occurred  on  the  10th  and  llth.  As  it  was  late  in 
the  season  none  of  them  were  accompanied  by  lightning  and  thun- 
der. The  asterisks  point  to  the  several  periods  of  low  barometer. 

So  the  northers  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  the  left  hand,  lateral 
winds  of  this  class  of  conditions  as  they  come  up  over  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  in  the  fall  ami  win:er  months  and  curve  to  the  east- 
ward over  the  United  States. 

The  following  description  of  two  winter  northers,  copied  from 
Colonel  Reid's  valuable  work,  will  illustrate  what  'has  been  said. 


o 

1843. 

Wind. 

o 

Jo 

Weather 

Bar. 

•_ 
o> 
j^ 

Jan.  30. 

A.M.  4. 

s.s.w. 

2 

b.  c. 

29.90 

77 

Off  Tamnico. 

Noon. 

South. 

g 

b.  c.  r. 

29.86 

76;  l  Lat.  23°  41>  N.,  Lons*.  94° 

P.M.  8. 

South. 

G 

b.  c.  r. 

29.84 

76 

\  50'  W. 

Jan.  31. 

A.M.  4. 

S.  Easterly. 

3 

b.  c. 

29.90 

74 

j  Between   6   and   10  A.M., 

1  wind  was  variable. 

Noon. 

N.  bv  W. 

9 

c.  q.  w. 

29.96 

76  Norther  com'ced  at  10  A  M. 

P.M.  8. 

N.N.W. 

9 

c. 

30.09 

73 

Lat.  22°  36'  N.,  Lg.  95°  48/  W. 

Feb.  1. 

A.M.  4. 

N.X.W. 

7 

c.  g. 

3C.29 

63 

Lat,  22°  97  jj.,  Lg.,  94°  5i:'  W. 

Noon. 

Westerly. 

6 

c. 

30.30 

67 

P.M.  8. 

Calm. 

0 

c. 

30.26 

67 

Feb.  14. 

A.M.  4. 

S.E. 

3 

b.  c.  r. 

2966 

73 

At  Sacraficios. 

Noon. 

S.W. 

4 

b.  c. 

•au;2 

Norther  comc'd  at  5.30  P.M. 

P.M.  8. 

N.W.  by  N. 

10 

c.  q.  u. 

20.72 

65 

Feb.  15. 

A.M.  4. 

N.W.  by  N 

10 

c.  q  u. 

30.10 

61 

$  Gale  moderated  and  again 
f  freshened  about  8  A.M. 

Noon. 

N.W.  bv  N. 

If 

c.  g.  q. 

30.19 

61 

P.M.  8. 

N.W.    - 

4 

c.  g. 

30.20 

65 

Feb.  16. 

A.M.  4. 

N.W. 

f. 

q. 

30.18 

62 

P.M.  8. 

N.N.W. 

2 

c.  g. 

30.21 

66 

b.  indicates  bine  sky — c.  detached  clouds — r.  rain — v.  visibility  of  objects — q. 
squalls — w.  wet  dew — u.  ugly  threatening  appearance — g.  gloomy  weather. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  57 

Precisely  such  changes  from  S.E.  rains  to  N.  W.  winds,  with  Hue 
sky  and  detached  dark  clouds — N.  W.  scud — occur  every  autumn 
in  October  and  November,  in  the  Eastern  and  Midd'e  States,  and 
the  falling  of  the  thermometer  and  rising  of  the  barometer,  after 
rain,  and  such  a  change  of  the  wind,  are  perfectly  characteristic. 
Doubtless  the  northers  are  all  of  the  same  general  character. 

In  both  of  these  instances  there  was  rain  with  the  wind  south 
or  southeast,  and  with  a  high  thermometer  and  low  barometer 
preceding  the  northerly  wind;  and  with  the  N.W.  wind  the  ther- 
mometer fell  and  the  barometer  rose.  The  westerly  or  left  hand 
lateral  wind  of  the  autumn  southeaster,  which  I  have  mapped  and 
described  to  you,  was  a  severe  Norther  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  If  that  storm  revolved  over  the  Gulf  it 
certainly  ceased  to  do  so  before  it  arrived  in  the  position  where 
it  was  investigated  and  I  have  represented  it.  With  a  few  other 
instances  occurring  elsewhere,  I  will  leave  this  class  of  conditions. 

Take  now  an  instance  from  Mr.  Bassnett's  "  Mechanical  Theory 
of  Storms,"  as  observed  by  him  at  Ottowa.  The  letters  in  paren- 
theses refer  to  the  wind. 

"June  <2lst.  Fine  clear  morning,  wind,  (S.  fresh  :)  noon  very 
warm,  88°  ;  4  P.M.,  plumous  cirri  in  south  ;  ends  clear. 

"22d.  Hazy  morning  (S.  very  fresh),  arch  of  cirrus  in  west ; 
2  P.M.,  black  in  W.N.W. ;  3  P.M.,  overcast  and  rainy ;  4  P.M.,  a 
heavy  gust  from  south ;  4.30  P.M.,  blowing  furiously  (S.  by  W.)  ; 

5  P.M.,  tremendous  squall,  uprooting  trees  and  scattering  chimneys; 

6  P.M.,  more  moderate  (W.). 

"23d.  Clearing  up  (N.W.)  ;  8  A.M.,  quite  clear;  11  A.M., 
bands  of  mottled  cirri  pointed  N.E.  and  S.W. ;  ends  cold  (W.N.W. ); 
the  cirri  seem  to  rotate  from  left  to  right,  or  with  the  sun. 

"  24th.     Fine  clear,  cool  day,  begins  and  ends  (N.W.). 

And  another  instance  in  August,  less  intense,  of  the  same  char- 
acter. 

"  August  ftth.  Very  fine  and  clear  all  day  ;  wind  from  S.W. ; 
a  light  breeze  ;  8  P.M.,  frequent  flashes  of  lightning  in  the  north- 
ern sky  ;  1 0  P.M.,  a  low  bank  of  dense  clouds  in  north,  fringed 
with  cirri,  visible  during  the  flash  of  the  lightning ;  12  P.M.,  same 
continues. 


58  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

"  7th.  Very  fine  and  clear  morning ;  wind  S.W.,  moderate  ; 
noon,  clouds  accumulating  in  the  northern  half  of  the  sky ;  wind 
fresher,  S.W.  ;  3  P.M.,  a  clap  of  thunder  over  head,  and  black 
cumuli  in  west,  north,  and  east ;  4  P.M.,  much  thunder  and  scat- 
tered showers ;  six  miles  west  rained  very  heavily ;  6  P.M.,  the 
heavy  clouds  passing  over  to  the  south ;  10  P.M.,  clear  again  in 
north. 

"8th.  Clear  all  day;  wind  the  same  (S.W.),  a  hazy  bank 
visible  all  along  on  southern  horizon" 

The  wind  for  the  9th  is  not  given,  but  the  belt  moved  very 
slowly,  keeping  in  sight  all  day  on  the  8th,  and  it  was  undoubtedly 
round  to  N.W.  after  the  belt  had  moved  farther  to  the  eastward 
on  the  9th. 

Now  follow  me  into  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  But  here  I 
must  premise  that  in  the  south  temperate  zone  the  winds  vary  in 
direction  from  ours,  but  obedient  to  the  same  general  law.  The 
conditions  move  there  from  Northwest  to  Southeast.  Of  course 
the  winds  are  reversed ;  the  storm-winds  there,  as  here,  are  on 
the  tropical  side  of  the  condition.  The  N.E.  wind,  as  a  wind 
lateral  to  the  condition,  corresponds  to  our  S.E.  wind,  and  the 
N.W.  wind  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  condition  that  the  S.W. 
does  to  the  conditions  in  this  zone.  So  the  S.W.  wind  bears  the 
same  relation  that  the  N.W.  does  here,  and  is  their  clearing  off 
wind  as  the  N.W.  is  here.  And  the  S.E.  wind  a'so  corresponds 
to  our  N.E.  and  the  S.  wind  there  corresponds  to  the  N.  wind  here. 
The  west  is  the  only  wind  that  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  con- 
ditions in  both  zones. 

It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  the  difficulties  experienced  in  doub- 
ling Cape  Horn,  arise  from  the  frequency  with  which  the  con- 
ditions pass  at  that  point,  and  the  almost  constant  alternation  of 
N.W.  storm-winds  with  S.W.  clearing. off  winds  of  passing  con- 
ditions, drifting  to  the  eastward,  past  the  cape.  I  have  had  a 
strong  desire  to  pass  around  the  Horn  and  observe  the  passing 
conditions  there  and  in  both  Oceans,  but  circumstances  have  pre- 
vented it.  An  intelligent  neighbor,  Dr.  Samuel  Lynes,  made  the 
trip  from  New  York  to  Panama  in  Ihe  Pacific  Mail  Co.'s  Steamer, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  59 

the  "  China,"  commanded  by  Capt.  Geo.  H.  Bradbury.  At  my  re- 
quest, he  kept  a  careful  record  of  his  observations,  which  he  fur- 
nished me,  and  which  I  shall  hereafter  use  extensively.  I  now 
copy  from  that  record  arid  the  log  politely  furnished  me  by  Capt. 
Bradbury,  in  order  to  show  the  conditions  met  with  from  lat.  2-1° 
S.  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  a  distance  of  about  2100  miles. 

Friday,  July  26,  1867.  Latitude  then  at  noon  was  24°  S. 
They  had  left  the  S.E.  trades  and  were  standing  S.W.  by  west, 
and  in  the  afternoon  entered  the  N.E.  wind  of  a  passing  condi- 
tion. The  record  is,  "  P.M.,  wind  E.N.E.  fresh,  sent  up  head- 
yards,"  and  the  record  for  the  succeeding  days  till  their  arrival 
at  Possession  Bay  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  is  as  follows : 

"Saturday,  July  27,  1867.  Begins  A.M.  with  strong  wind  from 
N.E.  to  N.E.  by  N.  Hazy  and  foggy.  7A.M.  thermometer  6G°. 
Fresh  breeze  from  N.  East, — nearly  calm  at  noon.  Saw  a  steam- 
er probably  bound  for  Rio  Janeiro.  Has  been  very  pleasant 
to-day ;  sails  set  to-day.  Lightning  in  S.E.  and  S.  to-night 
from  dark  to  midnight,  and  likely  to  be  a  change.  Thermome- 
ter highest  67°,  Lat.  26°  15  S.,  Long.  47°  03'  W.  Miles  run,  240. 

Sunday,  July  28.  Begins  A.M.  with  brisk  N.  to  N.N.W. 
winds  and  squally.  7  A.M.,  ther.  57°,  wind  round  in  a  light 
breeze  from  S.  W.,  sails  down  this  morning,  lightning  all  last  night. 
Fresh  S.W.  to  S.S.W.  wind  through  the  day,  and  fine.  Passed 
St.  Catherine's  light  about  midnight.  We  begin  to  see  many 
birds  now,  gulls,  etc.  Heavy  fog  at  2  P.M.  Saw  a  brig.  Di- 
vine service  at  4  P.M.  Saw  " Magellan's  Clouds"  Lat.  29°  38' 
S.,  Long.  49°  19'  W.  Miles  run  240. 

Monday,  July  29.  Began  A.M.  with  light  N.E.  wind  till  2 
A.M.  then  fresh  and  strong  from  N.E.  to  N.N.E.  7  A.M.  ther. 
56°.  Fresh  breeze  from  N.E.  Thunder  and  lightning,  and  heavy 
showers  and  hail.  Lighted  up  in  S.W.  after  a  deluge  of  rain 
with  lightning  and  thunder ;  at  10  A.M.  set  sail,  saw  a  brig,  wind 
steady  N.N.E.  Clouded  aga;n  at  1 1  A.M.,  wind  hauled  around 
slowly  and  got  to  S.W.  at  10  P.M.;  heavy  showers  all  day,  and 
heavy  E.N.E.  swell  to  midnight.  Ther.  highest  57°,  Lat.  33° 
10'  S.,  Long.  52°  40'  W.  Miles  run,  250. 


GO  TL1E    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Tuesday  July  30.  Began  A.M.  with  fresh  W.S.W.  wind  and 
cloudy  with  sharp  squalls.  7  A.M.  ther.  47°  cloudy.  A  S.VV. 
gale  ("  Pampero ")  blowing  this  morning,  Capt.  B.  says  not  a 
severe  one.  Let  in  steam  to  the  saloon  to  warm  us.  Off  the 
river  Plata  to-day.  Passing,  sharp  squalls  with  rain  and  hail  in 
afternoon  and  evening.  Nearly  over  a  vessel  at  8J-  P.M. 
Stopped  engines  and  backed  her  and  she  got  by — narrow  escape. 
Ther.  45°,  Lat.  35°  30'  S.,  Long.  54°  37'  W.  Miles  197. 

Wednesday  July  31.  Began  A.M.  with  wind  fresh  from  W. 
S.W.  and  fine.  7  A.M.  ther.  40°,  clear,  wind  and  sea  not  quite 
so  high  as  yesterday,  cloudy  at  9  A.M.  when  the  wind  veered  to 
N.W.,  rainy  at  11  A.M.  and  cold,  windy  and  disagreeable ;  set  jib 
and  fore  spencer,  sea  smoother.  Off  Cape  Corientes  at  4  P.M. 
Cleared  and  wind  moderated  in  P.M.  Sun  set  most  beautiful  to- 
night behind  Cape  Corientes.  Ther.  highest  48°,  Lat.  37°  31'  S., 
Long.  56°  40'  W.  Miles  163. 

Thursday  Aug  1.  Began  A.M.  moderate  to  fresh  from  N.  to 
N.W.  At  4  A.M.  wind  went  to  S.W".  by  W.  and  blew  fresh  a 
strong  wind  from  S.W.  dead  ahead,  large  sea.  Wind  and  sea 
moderated  in  the  afternoon  and  at  sundown,  only  a  gentle  breeze 
from  S.W.  Has  been  very  clear  and  bright  to-day.  Ther.  high- 
est 50°,  Lat.  39°  48'  S.,  Long.  59°  37'  W.  Miles  190. 

Friday  Aug.  2.  Began  A.M.  with  wind  N.W  fresh  with 
strong  intervals.  7  A.M.  ther.  51°,  cloudy,  cool  and  fresh  breeze 
from  N.W.  Sea  moderately  rough.  Set  jib  and  fore  spencer  at 
8  A.M.  At  9  A.M.  clear  arch  to  the  W.S.W.  and  when  over- 
head wind  came  out  S.W.  by  W.,  smart  gale.  Noon,  blows  a 
gale — a  pampero — more  severe  than  any  we  have  had  yet.  The 
waves  are  very  large — ship  is  very  steady.  7  P.M.  gale  increas- 
ing and  terrific.  Ther.  48°,  Lat.  42°  07  S.,  Long.  63°  00'  W. 
Miles  208. 

Saturday,  Aug.  3.  Began  A.M.  with  strong  S.W.  to  S.S.W. 
gale,  and  very  heavy  sea.  7  A.M.  ther.  49°,  cloudy,  wind  mod- 
erating, heavy  sea  running.  Passing  rain  squalls  through  the 
night.  The  gale  broke  towards  morning,  ship  behaved  admirably. 
P.M.  moderated  more  and  very  pleasant,  except  rough  sea  and 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  61 

occasional  light  passing  snow-squalls.  Ther.  44°,  Lat.  43°  49'  S., 
Long.  63°  44'  W.  Miles  107. 

Sunday  Aug.  4.  Began  A.M.  with  wind,  light  from  S.  by  W. 
till  6  A.M.,  then  light  N.N.W.  7  A.M.  ther.  40°,  cloudy  and 
cool  but  pleasant,  wind  freshening  from  N.N.W.,  set  all  sail  on 
foremast,  making  10  knots.  Off  Cape  Blanco  at  noon,  in  sight ;  a 
strong  breeze  from  N.E.  continuing  through  the  afternoon;  eve- 
ning rainy  and  dark.  Ther.  41°,  Lat.  47°  26'  S.,  Long.  65°  10'  W. 
Miles  226. 

Monday  Aug.  5.  Begins  A.M.  fresh  breeze  from  N.W.  7A.M. 
ther.  38°,  clear,  pleasant  but  cold.  Fresh  breeze  from  west  and 
rough  sea.  1  P.M.  snow-squall.  8  P.M.  off  Cape  Virgins,  entrance 
to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Passed  in  and  anchored  in  Possession 
Bay  at  midnight.  Blowing  fresh  S.W.  Lat.  51°  3'  S.,  Long.  67° 
41'  W.  Miles  240. 

Tuesday,  Aug.  6.  At  anchor  in  Possession  Bay.  Began  A.M. 
with  fresh  S.W.  wind  and  very  fine  weather." 

I  have  not  only  examined  carefully  the  record  of  Dr.  Lynes, 
and  the  log  of  Capt.  Bradbury,  but  have  conversed  with  both  of 
them  personally  on  the  subject,  and  the  record  is  entirely  reliable. 
And  now  remembering  that  the  steamer  was  running  to  the  S.W. 
at  right  angles  with  and  across  the  path  of  the  conditions,  from  8 
to  10  miles  an  hour,  and  that  the  conditions  which  they  met  were 
moving  to  the  southeastward  at  as  great  and  probably  greater 
speed,  let  us  analyze  the  record  and  see  what  the  number  and 
character  of  the  conditions  were  which  were  met  and  passed 
through  by  the  steamer. 

It  will  be  observed  that  at  lat.  24°  S.  they  had  entered  and 
were  running  with  a  fresh  N.E.  breeze,  which  was  obviously  the 
left-hand  lateral  wind  of  a  condition  moving  to  the  S.E.,  corres- 
ponding to  our  southeasters.  They  continued  to  run  in  that  wind 
through  that  night  and  the  next  day.  As  they  approached  that 
condition  at  night,  the  body  of  it  had  crossed  their  track,  but  they 
saw  its  lightning  in  the  S.E.  and  S.  from  dark  till  midnight.  The 
wind  veered  in  the  course  of  the  night  through  the  N.W.  and  W. 
with  some  squalls,  and  the  next  morning  they  entered  the  S.W. 


62  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

right-hand,  lateral  wind  of  the  condition,  which  continued  through 
the  day  with  fine  weather.  Thus  they  entered  this  condition 
July  26th,  at  noon,  at  lat.  24°,  and  ran  out  of  it  on  the  28th,  at 
evening,  and  the  whole  condition,  body  and  wings,  was  about  450 
miles  wide.  On  the  29th  they  entered  the  N.E.  lateral  wind  of 
another  condition,  and  in  the  forenoon  had  thunder  and  lightning, 
and  showers  and  hail.  The  showers  continued  through  the  day. 
Passing  through  the  condition  they  entered  the  S.W  wind  on  the 
other  side  of  it,  at  10  P.M.  which  freshened  through  the  night 
and  was  a  S.W.  gale  or  Pampero  in  the  morning.  The  S.W. 
wind  continued  through  the  30th  and  into  the  morning  of  the  31st. 
That  condition  was  about  350  miles  wide.  At  9  A.M.  of  the  31st 
they  struck  the  N.W.  wind  of  another  condition,  with  rain.  This 
N.W.  wind  lasted  until  4  A  M.  of  August  1st,  when  "  it  went  to 
S.W.  by  W.,"  and  so  to  S.W.  and  blew  strong  from  that  quarter 
through  the  day,  moderating  at  sundown  to  a  gentle  breeze  from 
the  S.W-  That  condition  was  about  300  miles  wide.  On  the 
morning  of  the  second  of  August,  they  entered  the  N.W.  wind  of 
another  condition,  which  they  ran  through  in  the  course  of  the 
day,  and  then  encountered  the  S.W.  wind  of  the  condition,  which 
lasted  them  through  the  rest  of  that  day  and  the  next,  and  proved 
to  be  a  more  severe  pampero  than  any  they  had  before  had. 
That  too,  body  and  wings,  was  about  300  miles  wide.  At  6  A.M. 
of  the  4th,  they  entered  the  N.W.  wind  of  still  another  condition, 
which  veered  to  the  N.E.  and  continued  through  the  day.  In  the 
evening  they  entered  the  body  of  the  condition  and  had  the  rain 
and  northerly  wind  through  the  night.  During  the  next  day  the 
wind  hauled  through  the  west  to  the  S  W.  and  they  anchored  in 
Possession  Bay  at  midnight  with  a  fresh  S  W.  wind  and  fine 
weather.  That  condition  was  at  least  400  miles  wide. 

This  is  a  most  instructive  record.  It  is  made  up  of  the  usual 
entries  of  an  intelligent  shipmaster  and  the  diary  of  an  intelligent 
physician,  a  passenger,  posted  in  regard  to  such  matters,  anc 
watching  for  the  changes,  and  is  perfectly  reliable. 

The  steamer  was  a  powerful  one,  and  held  her  way,  night  am 
day,  at  right  angles  to  the  path  of  the  conditions  in  that  locality, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  G3 

and  through  their  lateral  wings  of  wind,  and  bodies ;  and  taking 
the  speed  of  the  vessel  and  time  of  passage  through  each  condi- 
tion, we  could  map  them  out  severally  and  distinctly  without  the 
least  difficulty.  In  a  run  of  less  than  2100  miles  she  passed 
through  five  of  these  conditions  distinctly  and  clearly  marked,  and 
resembling  in  every  feature,  except  those  incident  to  the  hemis- 
phere, the  belts  of  showers  and  southeasters  known  to  us.  Ex- 
cept in  the  direction  of  their  progress,  and  the  change  of  sides 
for  their  storm  and  clearing  off  winds,  they  are  identical. 

There  were  five  of  them  met  with  and  passed  through  in  the 
run  of  less  than  2100  miles.  Doubtless  they  are  a  fair  represen- 
tation of  the  character  of  the  conditions  in  that  hemisphere. 
Nothing  like  our  northeasters  was  met  with,  nor  are  they  often 
found  elsewhere  than  on  the  eastern  part  of  our  country  and  off 
our  coast.  They  are  rare  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  unknown 
on  the  western  coast.  And  so,  as  I  have  said,  they  are  almost 
unknown  at  the  Horn,  and  there  they  rarely  have  any  easterly  winds. 

There  is  olher  and  abundant  evidence,  derived  from  the  records 
of  travellers  and  navigators,  that  the  prevalent  condition  which 
disturbs  the  normal,  fair  weather  state  of  the  south  polar  zone,  is 
of  the  same  character.  The  Sailing  Directions  of  Maury  are  full 
of  it.  Dove  collected  a  large  amount  of  it,  to  prove  his  law  of 
Gyration.  (See  his  Law  of  Storms,  p.  107  and  onward.)  The 
intelligent  man  who  examines  the  subject  will  find  it  impossible 
to  doubt  the  fact,  if  his  judgment  is  not  demoralized  by  false 
theory.  And  I  leave  this  class  of  conditions  with  the  assertion 
that  they  are  undoubted  by  the  prevailing  ones  of  the  Atmospheric 
System,  in  both  the  Polar  Zones. 

We  come  now  to  another  atmospheric  condition  distinctly 
marked  on  the  east  side  of  the  Alleghanies,  but  not  as  prevalent 
or  distinctly  marked  on  the  west  side,  called  the  Northeaster. 
The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  atmospheric  condition  is  a  thin 
stratum  of  N.E.  wind  which  sometimes  blows  a  day  or  two  towards 
the  storm  which  is  appoaching  from  the  southwest  before  the  storm 
reaches  us.  From  the  best  information  I  can  obtain,  I  am  satisfied 
that  in  such  cases,  the  storm  is  very  wide  and  presents  a  wide 


04  THK    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

front  to  the  eastward.  The  wind  sometimes  changes  from  the 
South  to  the  N.  East,  under  a  distinct  belt  of  rains,  where  that 
has  very  considerable  width.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  wind 
is  always  Northeast,  where  the  belts  have  a  width  of  500  miles 
or  more  on  the  east  side  of  the  Alleghanies.  This  wind  is  very 
frequent  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  focus  of  the  storm 
is  to  the  south  of  us,  and  its  northern  edge  extended  up  over  us, 
and  the  condensation  is  not  sufficiently  dense  to  precipitate.  In 
such  cases,  though  we  may  have  N.E.  wind  for  a  day  or  two,  while 
the  storm  is  passing  by  us  to  the  south,  we  may  get  no  rain  in  New 
England,  but  have  what  is  termed  a  "  dry  Northeaster."  I  think 
it  is  generally  true  that  the  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies,  which, 
when  they  first  commence  have  the  winds  N.E.,  and  have  their  heav- 
iest blow  from  the  S.W.,  become  Northeasters  in  high  latitudes, 
where  they  widen  out  and  lessen  in  intensity,  as  shown  by  Figures 
18  and  20. 

FIG.  18. 


Most  of  our  northeast  storms,  notwithstanding  they  have  cur- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  65 

rents  from  the  N.E.  and  S.W.  blowing  under  them  in  the  direction 
of  the  axis,  have  the  lateral  winds  from  the  S.E.  and  N.W.  de- 
veloped on  their  sides.  North  of  the  latitude  of  40°,  during  the 
winter  and  spring  months,  the  principal  path  and  focus  of  the 
conditions,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  is  at  the  southward.  When 
that  is  so,  the  N.E.  wind  backs  into  the  N.W.  as  the  condition 
passes  by,  all  the  surface  winds  blowing  toward  the  focus  or  pre- 
cipitating portion  of  the  storm.  When,  too,  the  focus  of  the  storm 
passes  south  of  the  observer,  without  rain  in  his  locality,  the  wind 
soon  backs  from  the  N.E.  to  the  N.N.E.  or  N., — a  sure  indication 
that  the  focus  is  to  the  southward,  and  this  is  very  common  north 
of  40°  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  in  the  early  spring 
months. 

When  the  principal  path  of  the  conditions  is  carried  up  by  the 
laws  of  the  general  system,  as  will  be  hereafter  explained,  the 
wind  hauls  around  from  the  N.E.  by  the  South  to  the  S.W.,  clear- 
ing off  warm,  as  it  is  termed,  and  then  summer  breaks  upon  us. 
I  have  frequently  seen  the  lateral  southerly  wind,  with  heavy 
scud,  blowing  in  under  the  body  of  a  northeaster,  while  the  thin 
stratum  of  N.E.  wind  was  running,  next  the  earth,  rapidly  to  the 
S.W.  Such  double  currents  produce  our  continuous  heavy  rains. 
I  have  seen,  too,  the  northwester,  in  the  rear  of  a  N.E.  storm,  at- 
tempting to  wedge  itself  in  between  the  N.E.  current,  near  the 
earth,  and  the  S.E.  current,  in  the  upper  part  ol  the  surface  story 
which  had  blown  clear  across  the  storm.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
pursue  further  the  description  of  the  Northeaster.  Enough  has 
been  said  to  point  out  its  peculiarities,  and  guide  you  to  an  obser- 
vation of  it. 

There  are  certain  irregular  conditions  which  occasionally  oc- 
cur. Thus  the  whole  eastern  part  of  the  continent  is  sometimes 
covered  for  days  by  cloudiness,  with  here  and  there  irregular 
patches  of  snow  or  rain  in  winter  and  spring,  or  showers  and  per- 
haps tornadoes  in  summer.  These  long  spells  of  extensive  con- 
densation and  dampness  or  irregular  rain,  and  irregular  winds 
are  occasional  and  exceptional,  and  of  course  defy  distinct  de- 
scription or  classification.  But  it  will  be  observed  that  they  gener- 


GG 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


ally  begin  with  southerly  or  easterly  wind  and  clear  off  from  the 
northwest. 

The  next  condition  to  which  we  shall  advert  is  the  Hurricane, 
This  term  is  usually  applied  to  violent  gales  at  sea  and  particu- 
larly those  which  originate  in  the  tropics.  They  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  China  Sea,  and  upon  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  east  of  the  Windward  Islands  of  the  West  Indies. 
They  are  most  common  in  the  warm  season  of  the  year.  Those 
which  occurred  in  the  West  Indies  between  the  years  1493  and 
1855,  of  which  there  is  record,  comprising  a  list  of  about  four 
hundred,  are  divided  between  the  months  as  follows : 


January,     - 
February, 
March, 
April,   - 
May, 
June,    - 


5 
7 

11 
6 
5 

10 


July, 

August, 
September, 
October, 
November, 
December,     - 


24 

-  9G 
80 

-  69 
17 

-  7 


FIG.  19. 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


67 


Many  of  the  Hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies  were  investigated 
and  charted  by  the  late  Wm.  C.  Redfield,  and  published  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Science.  He  considered  them  revolving 
gales,  and  such  is  now  the  received  opinion.  The  evidence  has 
never  satisfied  my  mind,  and  I  shall  examine  the  theory  hereafter. 
But  whatever  my  opinion  in  relation  to  the  theory  may  be,  I  can 
and  do  most  cheerfully  concur  in  the  high  appreciation  generally 
entertained  of  the  abilily  and  utility  of  his  investigations.  The 
preceding  is  a  copy  of  a  chart  prepared  by  Mr.  Redfield,  indicat- 
ing the  tracks  pursued  by  the  various  storms  which  he  investigated. 

The  following  is  also  a  copy  of  a  map  of  a  hurricane,  investigated 
by  Lieutenant  Porter  of  the  Navy  and  National  Observatory, 
from  the  Logs  of  vessels,  received  at  that  Institution,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  "  Sailing  Directions  "  of  Lieut.  Maury.  The  chart 

FIG.  20. 


68  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

of  Mr.  Redfield  will  give  you  a  general  idea  of  the  place  where 
these  hurricanes  originate  and  the  course  which  they  pursue. 
The  map  of  Lieut.  Porter  will  exhibit  to  you  the  course  and 
width  of  that  particular  condition,  by  its  shading.  The  white  line 
in  the  centre  is  intended  to  indicate  the  line  upon  which  the  bar- 
ometer stood  the  lowest. 

In  that  storm  the  lateral  winds  were  very  distinct,  and  as  it 
widened  out  in  the  North  Atlantic,  the  N.E.  wind  set  in  and  blew 
beneath  the  lateral  winds,  precisely  as  it  does  under  the  storms 
which  pass  over  the  continent  when  they  are  widened  out  to  the 
same  extent.  There  are  many  instances  on  record  where  others 
have  observed  four  currents  in  a  storm,  viz. :  The  N.E.,  next 
the  earth,  the  N. W.  over  that,  the  southerly  wind  over  both, — 
each  indicated  by  its  scud — and  the  trade  current  with  its  stratus 
moving  steadily  to  the  N.E.  over  all.  The  vortex  has  never  been 
seen  and  never  will  be. 

These  hurricane  conditions  of  the  Atlantic,  thus  originating, 
organized  and  progressive,  were  frequently  traced  by  Mr.  Red- 
field,  as  by  Lieut.  Porter,  maintaining  their  organization  and  vio- 
lent action  for  many  days,  until  they  passed  far  into  the  North 
Atlantic  beyond  the  track  of  commerce,  and  all  opportunity  for 
observation.  Where  their  organization  was  broken  up  and  their 
action  ceased,  we  canmot  know.  The  presumption  is  by  no  means 
a  violent  one — (curving,  as  some  of  them  evidently  did,  to  the 
westward  again  on  the  North  Atlantic,  in  the  face  of  the  theory 
of  rotation — and  regardless  of  converging  meridians) — that  they 
entered  the  Arctic  circle  and  attained  a  higher  latitude  than  man 
has  ever  attained. 

These  hurricane  conditions  of  the  Atlantic  are  of  practical  as 
well  as  theoretic  interest  to  us,  as  they  generally  hug  our  coast,  in 
their  movement  to  the  north,  and  extend  more  or  less  inland  east 
of  the  Alleghanies,  and  are  sometimes  destructive  in  their  effects. 
But  a  knowledge  of  their  organizing  and  continuing  force  has 
an  important  bearing  in  the  investigation  of  the  general  atmos- 
pheric system.  That  interest  is  increased  by  the  events  of  the 
last  two  years.  During  the  summer  of  1867,  a  wide  belt  of  coun- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  G9 

try  in  the  interior  of  the  United  States  from  the  Gulf  to  Canada 
was  afflicted  with  a  destructive  drought,  while  the  whole  coast- 
region  east  of  the  Alleghanies  was  suffering  with  dampness  and 
drench.  The  extraordinary  humidity  and  precipitation  were  pro- 
duced by  a  succession  of  these  hurricane  conditions  passing  up 
along  the  coast  and  extending  inland.  They  were  more  numerous 
and  precipitated  more  than  usual,  but  in  other  respects  their  ac- 
tion was  less  violent.  There  was  obviously  a  diversion  to  the 
eastward  of  the  conditions  and  trade  current,  which  usually  enter 
over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  upon  the  Southwestern  States,  and  pass 
up  over  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  in  the  summer  months, 
which  diversion  gave  the  coast-states  an  unusual  quantity  of  rain 
and  left  the  inteiior  states  deficient.  I  shall  allude  to  this  matter 
again,  after  we  have  examined  the  general  organization  of  the 
atmospheric  system  and  come  to  the  consideration  of  Droughts. 

I  have  said  that  these  Atlantic  Hurricanes  were  generally  con- 
sidered revolving  Cyclones.  Much  evidence  has  been  accumula- 
ted to  prove  this,  and  also  with  reference  to  the  hurricanes  of  the 
China  Sea  and  Bay  of  Bengal.  Whatever  may  be  said  or  true 
in  relation  to  the  wind  blowing  in  them  round  a  circle,  it  is  con- 
ceded and  undoubtedly  true  that  their  strongest  winds  are  lateral 
to  their  line  of  progress.  Their  rotary  charac'er  will  be  consid- 
ered when  we  come  to  the  laws  of  the  conditions. 

There  is  another  class  of  Hurricanes  which  have  no  discovera- 
ble rotation,  and  which  are  the  most  violent  of  all.  The.ce  vary 
in  width  from  a  mile  to  forty  or  fifty  miles,  and  under  the  whole 
width  the  lateral  winds  are  masked  by  a  most  violent  and  des- 
tructive wind  which  follows  the  body  of  cloud  and  its  line  of  pro- 
gress from  the  westward  to  the  eastward.  By  the  kindness  of 
Col.  Lachlan,  of  Cincinnati,  a  British  officer  now  resident  in  that 
city,  who  has  devoted  much  attention  to  Meteorology,  and  who 
investigated  it  with  much  industry,  I  am  enabled  to  describe  fully 
that  particular  condition.  It  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
ones  of  the  class  which  is  known  to  have  passed  over  the  country, 

It  occurred  on  the  21st  May,  1860.  Commencing  west  of 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  it  followed  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  to  Ports- 


70  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

mouth,  Ohio,  a  distance  by  an  air  line  of  1 00  miles.  East  of 
Portsmouth  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  violent.  It  was  from 
40  to  50  miles  in  width,  and  devastated  the  country  over  which  it 
passed.  It  passed  over  and  injured  the  residence  of  Col.  Lach- 
lan,  and  he  sent  me  a  full  account  of  it  as  witnessed  by  him,  and 
a  large  collection  of  other  accounts,  collected  from  newspapers 
and  other  sources.  I  regret  that  my  limits  will  not  permit  the 
insertion  of  much  of  the  material  furnished  me.  I  make,  how- 
ever, a  few  extracts.  The  following  is  from  one  of  the  Cincinnati 
Journals  published  on  the  succeeding  morning  : 

"  About  three  o'clock  yesterday  afternoon,  a  tremendous  tor- 
nado burst  upon  the  city.  We  had  observed  a  few  minutes  be- 
fore, that  the  storm  rising  in  the  southwest  promised  to  be  one  of 
unusual  severity.  Violent  gusts  of  wind  whirled  the  dust  in  fierce 
eddies  about  the  streets,  and  made  the  sand  and  gravel  whiz  and 
spin  over  the  boulders  and  sidewalks.  The  air  suddenly  grew 
dark,  and  presently  a  craggy  mass  of  black  and  ashen  clouds  were 
seen,  laced  and  bristling  with  streams  of  lightning,  ru-hing  up 
the  sky  with  amazing  velocity.  So  vivid  and  incessant  was  the 
play  of  electricity,  that  the  storm-cloud  seemed  like  a  magazine 
of  rockets  exploding  and  launching  volleys  of  fiery  darts  in  every 
direction.  While  the  lightnings  were  naming  above,  the  tempest 
was  roaring  below,  and  as  it  advanced,  the  city  was  lost  to  view 
in  the  white  and  hissing  spray  of  the  rain. 

"The  force  of  the  wind  was  for  this  latitude  almost  unexampled. 

"In  a  few  minutes  immense  damage  was  done.  Steeples  were 
prostrated,  dwellings  overthrown,  crushing  the  occupants  in  the 
ruins ;  roofs  whirled  on  high,  torn  into  shreds  and  scattered  far 
and  wide ;  shade  trees  uprooted,  twisted  and  broken  by  hundreds  ; 
signs  torn  from  their  fastenings,  and  shivered  into  splinters ;  chim- 
neys beaten  down  ;  windows  burst  in  ;  carriages  overturned ; 
persons  hurled  from  their  feet  and  bruised  against  the  walls.  We 
have  indeed  a  long  and  distressing  catalogue  of  disaster  to  pre- 
sent our  readers. 

"There  was  universal  consternation  throughout  the  city.  Peo- 
ple lost  faith  in  the  roofs  over  and  the  walls  around  them,  and 
ran  into  the  streets,  notwithstanding  the  rain,  for  safety. 


THK    ATMOSPHERIC    SYaTEM.  71 

The  sun  set  in  a,  sky  of  crimson  and  orange.  The  western  sky 
was  illuminated  i  s  if  by  a  vast  conflagration.  A  heavy  rain  set 
in  early  in  the  evening  and  continued  until  after  midnight,  drench- 
ing the  habitations  made  roofless  by  the  tornado,  which  is  conced- 
ed to  have  been  the  most  disastrous  known  to  the  present  gener- 
ation." 

The  following  account  is  from  the  "  Louisville  (Ky.)  Courier," 
of  the  next  morning  : 

"A  little  after  2  o'clock  yesterday  the  city  was  swept  by  one  of 
the  most  fearful  and  destructive  tornadoes  ever  known.  During 
the  morning  it  was  pleasant,  but  towards  noon  it  began  to  cloud 
up,  and  about  1  o'clock  the  heat  was  oppressive  in  the  extreme. 
The  threatening  clouds  were  gathering  in  heavy  masses  in  all  di- 
rections, with  not  a  breath  of  air  stirring  in  the  streets,  but  that 
a  storm  was  brewing  was  apparent  to  the  most  casual  observer  of 
the  elements.  The  scene  soon  fearfully  changed,  with  a  most 
singular  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  clouds,  which  varied  in 
color  from  black  to  green,  and  then  to  straw  color,  followed  by  a 
terrible  tornado,  which  luckily  lasted  but  a  few  minutes,  or  the 
destruction  would  have  been  immense.  The  city  in  a  twinkling 
was  completely  enveloped  in  dust,  houses  unroofed  and  demolished, 
trees  uprooted,  and  the  utmost  confusion  prevailed  in  the  almost 
Cimmerian  darkness  that  encompassed  the  city.  The  wind  shifted 
from  southwest  to  the  northwest,  and  amid  the  clashing  of  the 
elements,  amid  the  lightning  and  loud  peals  of  thunder,  the  rain 
poured  down  in  torrents— a  miniature  deluge,  intermixed  with  a 
heavy  storm  of  hail." 

The  following  also  is  from  the  "  Portsmouth  Tribune." 

"Last  evening,  about  four  o'clock,  a  terrible  tornado  swept  over 
this  city  and  vicinity,  surpassing  in  violence  all  storms  ever  expe- 
rienced in  Ohio,  and  most  disastrous  and  fatal  in  its  results. 

"A  dark  cloud  in  the  southwest,  accompanied  by  muttering  thun- 
der, indicated  the  approach  of  a  storm ;  but  nothing  more  than 
an  ordinary  thundergust  was  anticipated,  until  the  gale  in  all  its 
resistless  fury  burst  upon  us.  Its  approach  was  so  sudden  that 
persons  were  hardly  able  to  close  doors  and  windows,  before  rain 


72  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

and  wind  had  swept  in,  carrying  all  before  them.  In  an  instant, 
buildings  in  all  directions  were  unroofed — chimneys,  gables,  fire- 
walls, steeples,  and  spires  began  to  fall.  The  air  was  filled  and 
literally  darkened  with  timbers,  rafters,  shingles,  bricks  and  mor- 
tar, tin  roofing,  and  all  manner  of  wreck,  whirling  and  eddying 
above  and  around  like  feathers  in  a  whirlwind.  Crash  upon  crash 
— surpassed  only  by  the  terrific  thunder — followed  in  succession, 
as  steeples,  furnace  stacks,  and  buildings  fell,  involving  men, 
women,  children,  furniture,  horses  and  cattle,  in  one  common  ruin. 

"In  its  approach  to  the  city  it  came  with  overwhelming  violence 
from  a  southwestern  direction,  sweeping  all  that  remained  of  the 
old  New  York  Warehouse  from  the  foundation." 

Colonel,  taen  Major  Lachlan,  also  wrote  me  a  graphic  account  of 
the  effects  of  the  hurricane,  remarking  that  he  was  necessarily 
engaged  in  attending  to  the  preservation  of  his  premises,  so  sud- 
denly threatened  with  destruction,  and  could  not  notice  partic- 
ularly all  the  phenomena  as  they  occurred.  He  sent  me,  however, 
the  following  letter  from  Prof.  Christy,  who  happened  to  be  pres- 
ent and  who  did  notice  them.  It  is  an  interesting  letter,  and  I 
insert  it  entire : 

MY  DEAR  MAJOR — You  ask  me  to  state  my  recollections  of  the 
storm  of  the  21st  May,  which  occurred  about  half  past  2  P.M., 
while  I  was  visiting  you  at  your  residence.  You  will  remember 
that  we  had  taken  our  seats  in  your  room,  and  that  I  sat  near  the 
window  opening  to  the  south.  My  attention  was  directed  to  the 
appearance  of  the  clouds  on  the  Kentucky  side  of  the  river.  I 
remarked  that  I  did  not  like  their  appearance.  They  were 
flying  very  swiftly  and  had  the  peculiar  color  which  characterizes 
the  advance  clouds  of  a  hurricane. 

A  moment  later,  on  looking  down  upon  the  city,  I  found  the 
view  obscured  by  a  dense  cloud  of  dust,  and  could  distinctly  hear 
the  roar  of  the  storm,  as  it  rushed  onward  in  its  devastating 
course.  In  the  next  moment  it  was  upon  us,  with  all  its  force, 
and  we  had  to  spring  to  doors  and  windows  to  prevent  them  from 
being  dashed  inwards  by  the  force  of  the  wind.  Taking  my 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  73 

stand  by  the  front  door  which  occupied  the  point  of  greatest  ex- 
posure, I  expended  my  strength  in  keeping  it  secure.  From  that 
point  I  could  witness  the  movements  of  the  wind,  as  indicated  by 
the  motion  of  the  objects  which  were  driven  along  by  its  power. 
It  seemed  to  confine  itself  to  a  direct  line  in  a  S.W.  and  N.E.  di- 
rection and  not  to  move  in  a  curve  like  an  ordinary  whirlwind. 

The  hurricane  was  not  a,  continuous  rush  of  wind,  of  equal 
force  during  its  duration,  but  swept  along  with  much  greater  power 
at  some  moments  than  at  others  ;  nor  was  its  greatest  force  exerted 
at  the  commencement  of  the  storm.  The  cut  hay  upon  the  lawn 
in  front  of  the  dwelling,  was  partly  removed  during  the  first 
blasts ;  but  it  was  not  until  near  the  middle  of  the  period  during 
which  the  storm  lasted,  that  the  hay  was  all  licked  up  so  as  not 
to  leave  a  stalk  of  it  upon  the  stubble.  It  was  at  this  period, 
too,  that  portions  of  the  porch  were  blown  down,  and  the  post  and 
rail  fence,  lifted  from  the  ground,  was  partly  precipitated  against 
the  steps  leading  up  to  the  front  door.  The  roar  of  the  storm 
was  so  deafening  that  the  falling  of  the  chimneys  upon  the  roof 
was  unnoticed,  and  I  must  confess  that  I  expected  every  moment, 
that  the  house  and  all  its  contents  would  be  overturned  and  swept 
away  during  the  elemental  commotions  which  so  fiercely  beset  us. 

In  reference  to  the  extension  of  the  storm  eastward,  I  can  only 
remark,  that  a  few  days  since  I  passed  over  the  Cincinnati,  Chil- 
licothe  and  Marietta  Railroad,  and  had  the  opportunity  of  wit- 
nessing its  effects  upon  the  forests.  I  learned  from  the  conductor 
of  the  freight  train,  that  its  force  was  maintained  from  Cincinnati 
onwards  to  a  point  some  fifteen  miles  east  of  Athens,  after  which 
it  seemed  to  lose  its  power,  and  at  Marietta  amounted  only  to  an 
ordinary  gale. 

The  conductor  pointed  out  the  spot  to  me  where  the  storm  met 
him,  a  few  miles  beyond  Hamden.  Hundreds  of  trees  were  pros- 
trated, but  as  the  wind  was  blowing  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  road 
— say  from  west  to  east — none  of  them  fell  across  the  track,  and 
thus  his  train  escaped  destruction. 

Respectfully  yours, 

DAVID  CHRISTY. 


74  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

I  copy  next  an  account  of  the  hurricane  as  it  struck  the  Cov- 
ington  and  Lexington  Railroad,  1 6  miles  south  of  Cincinnati,  in 
Kentucky,  where  a  band  of  it  demolished  a  railroad  train. 

"We  are  indebted  to  Mr,  A.  F.  Woodallfor  the  following  news 
of  the  tornado  on  the  line  of  the  C.  '&  L.  Railroad : 

At  2.25  P.M.,  the  train  entered  a  forest  sixteen  miles  south  of 
Covington,  and  the  hurricane  struck.  Trees  fell  like  reeds.  It 
seemed  safer  to  proceed  than  to  stop,  and  either  seemed  destruc- 
tive. When  the  train  was  within  fifty  yards  of  a  clearing,  twelve 
trees  fell  within  fifty  feet  of  the  cars.  One  of  them,  a  soft  pop- 
lar, three  feet  eight  inches  in  diameter,  fell  just  in  front  of  the 
engine,  which  leaped  it,  leaving  her  trucks,  cylinders  and  steam 
chests  behind.  The  tree  is  under  the  baggage  car,  and  the  car  on 
its  side.  The  train  stopped  within  a  distance  of  forty  feet,  throw- 
ing passengers  in  a  heap  at  the  front  end.  When  the  train 
stopped  limbs  of  trees  were  falling  like  flails,  and  two  trees  came 
crashing  like  a  thunderbolt,  and  filling  the  air  with  leaves  and 
boughs.  The  tops  of  several  trees  fell  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
ladies'  car.  A  scene  of  more  utter  terror  could  not  be  imagined. 
Death  seemed  inevitable.  The  track  of  the  tornado  was  about 
one  hundred  yards  wide,  and  the  train  was  in  the  very  center  of  it. 
Tom  Flood,  the  fireman,  had  both  hands  badly  scalded,  and  was 
otherwise  injured.  Isaac  Barnet,  engineer,  stood  at  his  post  like 
a  man,  and  received  only  a  small  cut  over  one  eye.  He  was  cov- 
ered with  the  branches  of  trees,  and  leaves.  No  passenger  car 
was  thrown  from  the  track.  The  screams  of  children,  the  shrieks 
of  terrified  women,  the  pallor  of  stout  men,  was  a  scene  to  move 
the  soul  It  was  awful.  All  the  employees  of  the  train  were 
more  or  less  hurt,  but  the  passengers  escaped  without  injury. 
The  fireman  was  buried  under  the  wood  in  the  tender,  and  would 
have  been  scalded  to  death  but  for  Frank  Lockwood,  who  worked 
like  a  hero  to  save  the  poor  fellow.  The  storm  lasted  perhaps 
ten  minutes" 

It  may  perhaps  be  well  to  insert  here  a  copy  of  the  Meteoro- 
logical Record,  kept  at  College  Hill,  Cincinnati,  for  the  20th,  21st, 
and  22d  days  of  May,  1860. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


75 


ABSTRACT  OF  METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS  AT   COLLEGE  HILL,  DURING 
THE  20iH,  21sT,  AND  22D  OF  MAY,  1860. 


LATE. 

BAROMETER. 

THERMOMETER. 

CLOUDS. 

WIND  &  DIRECTION. 

7  A  M2  P  M|9  PM 

7AM 

2   I'M 

9PM 

7   AM. 

2  P.M. 

9  P.M. 

7  A.M.  2  P.M. 

9  P.M. 

w.  2 
w.  3 

May  20  28.7028.7028.60 
"     21  28.57.28.7028.65 

62 
70 

76 
70 

70 
62 

8  s.w.  4 

10  w.  8 

9w.  2 
10  w.  2 

w.  2 

s.w.  4 

s.  3 

w.  8 

"     2228.7528.7028.70 

ll         t         i 

64 

70 

62 

10  N.W.  4 

N.W.  2 

N.W.  2 

N.W.  2 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

"  21st.  A  thunder  storm  from  the  west,  accompanied  with  driv- 
ing rain,  lightning  and  thunder,  very  violent.  Violent  gale  or 
hurricane  ;  blew  down  vigorous  trees  of  large  size  by  scores.  Its 
greatest  violence  at  3  P.M.  By  reports  from  the  south  and  west, 
it  appears  to  be  about  50  miles  wide, — direction  S.W.,  W.,  and 
N.W.,  making  its  bend  near  the  Ohio  river,  at  Cincinnati.  Noth- 
ing like  it  here  for  over  40  years." 

Also  the  following  from  the  Register  at  Woodward's  High 
School : 

MEMORANDUM  OF  OBSERVATIONS  AT  WOODWARD  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


DAT* 

BAROMETER 

THERMOMETER. 

CLOUDS. 

WIND. 

RAIN. 

7  A  M2  PM!)  i>  M 

7  AM 

2PM9PM 



May  20 

28.70  28.  70!28.60 

|         | 

62 

76 

70 

"      21 

2857287028.70 

1         i 

70 

70 

62 

"     22 

28.75  2$  84  28.64 

1         i 

64 

70 

62 

From  these  data  and  a  mass  of  other  data  collected  by  Col. 
Lachlan,  the  following  facts  appear : 

First,  The  hurricane  was  about  40  miles  wide.  Second,  It 
was  exceedingly  violent  and  destructive.  The  injury  done  be- 
tween Louisville  and  Portsmouth,  as  estimated  by  a  Cincinnati 
paper,  after  the  accounts  were  all  in  from  the  country,  was  esti- 
mated at  $1,300,000.  Third,  The  duration  of  the  storm  at  any 
place  did  not  exceeed  20  minutes,  nor  was  it  less  than  10  minutes. 
Fourth,  The  direction  of  the  wind  at  every  place  was  between 


7G  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

N.W.  and  S.W.,  and  at  no  one  of  the  40  to  50  places  was  the 
wind  N.  of  one  or  S.  of  the  other.  At  Cincinnati  one  of  the 
papers  described  it  as  from  the  S.W.  and  another  as  from  the 
N.  W.  The  Louisville  Courier,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  extract, 
described  it  as  shifting  from  S.W.  to  N.W.  Nearly  all  the  ac- 
counts described  it  as  from  the  west.  One  of  the  Cincinnati 
papers  speaks  of  it  as  having  blown  in  bands  or  separate  divisions, 
and  the  same  thing  is  mentioned  by  others,  arid  is  clearly  deduci- 
ble  from  the  reports.  Undoubtedly  the  cloud  was  divided  into 
bands  parallel  with  its  line  of  motion,  as  I  have  described  them 
as  existing  in  all  storms,  and  the  lines  of  violent  wind  correspond- 
ed with  the  bands  of  intensity  and  condensation  in  the  clouds. 
Fifth,  The  barometer  rose  just  before  the  cloud  appeared,  and  did 
not  fall  materially  during  its  passage.  Sixth,  At  no  spot  on  the 
territory  which  it  devastated  was  there  the  slightest  trace,  mark  or 
evidence  of  rotation  or  gyration.  Seventh,  It  occurred  in  a  pass- 
ing condition,  of  considerable  extent,  which  had  the  usual  lateral 
winds  and  a  subsequent  continuous  rain. 

From  these  facts  it  is  evident  that  this  was  substantially  a 
straight  line  hurricane,  and  where  the  wind  varied  from  its  line  of 
progress  it  was  either  S.W,  or  N.W.,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  cumu- 
lo-stratus  clouds  settled  low  down  near  the  earth,  moving  rapidly 
over  it,  whirling  and  condensing  on  its  front  and  drawing  the  air 
between  it  and  the  earth,  after  it  with  irresistible  force. 

I  have  seen  many  such  hurricanes,  but  upon  a  smaller  scale, 
and  less  violent,  and  such  gusts  are  very  common  under  parts 
of  intense  belts  of  showers. 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  Louisville  description  that  the  sky 
became  overcast  some  hours  before  the  hurricane  clouds  appeared. 
Probably  there  was  a  dense  layer  of  cirrus  in  the  upper  story, 
with  patches  of  cirro-stratus  in  the  upper  part  of  the  trade  story, 
and  the  bands  of  cumulo-stratus  constituting  the  hurricane  cloud 
formed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  trade  story,  and  gradually  settled 
down  into  the  surface  story,  drawing  after  them  the  intervening 
surface  atmosphere  as  they  passed  along,  and  creating  the  roaring 
sound  described  by  the  observers.  Such  has  been  the  manner 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  77 

n  which  such  storms  and  gusts  have  formed  and  moved  when  I 
have  had  opportunity  to  observe  them. 

The  thermometer,  as  it  appears  from  the  Meteorological  reports, 

stood  at  about  70°,  and  as  it  was  in  May  and  a  cloudy  day,  the 

sarth  could  not  have  been  heated  in  that  locality  as  high  as  that. 

And  now  professional  men,  practical  men,  and  young  men, 
whose  minds  are  uncommitted  to  theory,  answer  me,  in  candor 
and  honesty,  is  it  possible  that  that  organized  condition  could  have 
been  created  and  impelled  over  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  70  or  80 
miles  an  hour,  with  all  that  awful  and  tremendous  exhibition  of 
power,  by  the  mere  mechanical  effect  of  the  air  heated  by  contact 
with  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  70°  ?  Is  not  the  persistent  teach- 
ing of  such  a  theory  an  insult  to  your  understandings  ? 

The  remaining  form  of  condition  is  the  tornado,  so  it  is  termed 
when  it  occurs  upon  land,  but  it  is  called  spout  or  water-spout 
when  it  occurs  upon  the  water.  The  following  are  its  principal 
peculiarities. 

1  st.  It  occurs  during  a  peculiarly  sultry  and  electric  state  of 
the  trade  and  surface  atmosphere^  and  at  a  time  when  thunder 
showers  are  prevailing  in  and  around  the  locality,  as  an  incident 
of  the  showery  condition,  and  at  any  period  of  the  year  when  such 
a  state  of  the  atmosphere  exists.  One  recently  occurred  in  Bran- 
don, Ohio,  in  midwinter. 

2d.  There  is  always  a  cloud  above,  but  very  near  the  earth, 
between  which  and  the  earth  the  tornado  forms  and  rages.  It  is 
usually  described  as  a  black  cloud,  ranging  about  1000  feet  or  less 
above  the  earth,  often  with  a  whitish  shaped  cone  projecting  from 
it,  and  forming  a  connection  with  the  earth ;  at  intervals  rising 
and  breaking  the  connection,  and  again  descending  and  renewing 
it  with  devastating  energy.  Its  width  at  the  surface  varies  from 
forty  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  rods — the  most  usual  width  be- 
ing from  sixty  to  ninety  rods.  Sometimes  when  still  wider,  they 
have  more  the  character  of  thunder-gusts,  and  are  brightly 
luminous. 

3d.  Two  motions  are  usually  visible,  one  ascending  one  near 
the  earth  and  in  the  middle,  and  a  gyratory  one  around  the  other. 


78  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

The  latter  is  rarely  felt,  or  its  effects  observed,  near  the  earth. 
Occasionally,  and  at  intervals,  objects  are  thrown  obliquely  back- 
ward by  it. 

4th.  It  is  composed,  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  of  two  lateral 
currents,  a  northerly  and  southerly  one,  varying  in  direction, 
but  at  right  angles  in  most  cases,  although  not  always,  with  its 
course  of  progression,  extending  from  the  extreme  limits  of  its 
track  to  the  axis  ;  which  currents  are  most  distinctly  defined 
toward  the  center,  and  upward.  These  currents  prostrate  trees, 
or  elevate  and  remove  every  thing  in  their  way  which  is  detached 
and  movable.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  current  in  ad- 
vance of  these  lateral  ones  tending  toward  the  tornado,  save  in 
rare  and  excepted  cases,  and  then  owing  to  the  make  of  the  ground 
or  the  irregular  action  of  the  currents  ;  nor  any  following,  except 
that  made  by  the  curving  of  lateral  currents  toward  the  center  of 
the  spout  as  it  moves  on,  and  perhaps  a  tendency  of  the  air  to  follow 
and  supply  the  place  of  that  which  has  been  carried  upward  and 
forward,  like  that  of  water  following  the  stern  of  a  vessel.  The 
south  current  is  always  the  strongest,  and  often  crosses  the  axis 
and  curves  backward  as  it  rises  from  the  surface,  and  ascends  a 
little  in  advance  of  the  other,  and  covers  the  greatest  area.  The 
proportion  of  the  two  currents  to  each  other  is  much  the  same 
that  the  S.E.  trades  bear  to  the  N.E.  This  excess  in  volume 
and  strength  of  the  southerly  current  will  explain  the  irregular- 
ities in  most  cases,  and  the  fact  that  objects  are  so  often  taken 
up  and  carried  from  the  south  to  the  north  side,  and  so  rarely  from 
the  north  and  carried  south  of  the  axis.  These  irregularities  are 
such  as  attend  all  violent  forces,  and  something  can  be  found 
which  will  favor  almost  any  theory ;  but  the  two  lateral  currents 
appear  always  to  be  the  principal  actors,  except  when  it  widens 
out  and  assumes  more  the  character  of  a  straightforward  gust. 
See  a  collection  by  Professor  Loomis,  American  Journal  of 
Science,  vol.  xliii.  p.  278. 

The  following  diagram  is  a  section  of  the  New  Haven  tornado, 
from  Professor  Olmstead's  map  accompanying  his  article  in  the 
"  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  340. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


79 


The  manner  in  which  the  main  currents  flow  is  shown  by  their 
early  and  unresisted  effect  in  a  cornfield,  as  represented  by  the 
dotted  lines.  The  direction  in  which  the  fragments  of  buildings 

FIG.  21. 


were  carried  by  the  greater  power  of  the  southerly  currents,  and 
by  their  crossing  the  axis  in  advance  and  curving  backward  is 
clearly  shown  and  should  be  particularly  observed  and  remem- 
bered. And  so  is  this  irregular  action,  where  a  part  of  the  south- 
erly current  broke  through  the  northerly  one,  and  prostrated  two 
or  three  trees  backward  on  the  north  side  of  the  axis. 

5th.  This  cloud,  and  its  spout,  move  generally  with  the  course 
of  the  counter-trade  in  the  locality — i.  e.,  from  some  point  between 
S.W.  and  W.,  to  the  eastward,  but  occasionally  a  little  south  of 
east. 

6th.  Several  exceedingly  instructive  particulars  have  been 
observed  and  recorded. 

a.  No  wind  is  felt  outside  of  the  track,  as  those  assert  who  have 
stood  very  near  it,  and  its  effects  show. 


80  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

b.  The  track  is  often  as  distinctly  marked,  where    it  passed 
through  a  wood,  as  if  the  grubbers  had  been  there  with  their  axes 
to  open  a  path  for  a  railroad.     The  branches  of  the  trees,  project- 
ing within  its  limits,  are  found  twisted  and  broken  off,  or  stripped 
of  their  leaves,  while   not  a  leaf  is  disturbed  at  the  distance  of 
a  foot  or  two  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tree,  and  outside  of  the 
track. 

c.  As  the  spout  parses  over  water,  the  latter  seems  to  boil  up 
and  rise  to  meet  it,  Wb$flow  up  its  trunk  in  a  continued  stream. 

d.  As  it  passes  over  the  land,  and  over  buildings,  fences,  and 
other  moveable  things,  they  appear  to  shoot  up,  instantaneously,  as 
it  were,  into  the  air,  and  into  fragments.     If  buildings  are  not  de- 
stroyed or  removed,  the  doors  may  be  burst  open  on  the  leeward 
side,  and  gable  ends  snatched  out,  and  roofs  taken  off  on  the  same 
side,  while  that  portion  of  the  building  which  is  to  the  windward 
remains  unaffected. 

e.  Articles  of  clothing,  and  other  light  articles,  have  been  car- 
ried out  of  buildings  through  open  doors,  or  chimneys,  or  holes 
made  in  the  roofs,  and  to  a  great  distance,  without  any  opening 
being  made  for  the  air  to  blow  in. 

f.  If  there  be  a  discharge  of  electricity  up  the  spout  from  the 
earth,  like  that  of  lightning,  the  intense  action  ceases  for  a  time 
or  entirely. 

g.  Vegetation  in  the  track  is  often  scorched  and  killed,  and  so 
of  the  leaves  on  one  side  of  a  tree,  which  is  within  the   track, 
while  those  on  the  other  side,  and  without  the  track  remain  unaf- 
fected.    (Espy's  Philosophy  of  Storms,  359,  cited  from  Peltier.) 

/>.  The  active  agent,  whatever  it  is,  has  been  known  to  seize  hold 
of  a  chain  attached  to  a  plow  and  draw  the  plow  about,  turning  the 
stiff  sod  for  a  considerable  distance.  (See  Loomis  on  the  tornado 
at  Stow,  Ohio,  American  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  xxxiii,  p.  368). 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  diagram  prepared  by  Professor 
Loomis,  of  the  path  of  that  tornado  : 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTF 


81 


3  3  5.3  t> 


3  S  9  sr 

K'c  CTP 


«-r  o  >-^g  5; 
<=>  S  "  S  s 


H   5 


o  2 


Ho3^ 

-^sii. 
1^5. 

l?a 


rf»8 

P^_3$ 


S-^3  » 
I  o^l 


~~ 


D> 


PCD 


Do 


D- 


a 


a 


D 
z    D 


H 

O  S 


t? 

Q 


82  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


^'.     In  parsing  over  ponds,  the  spout  has  taken  up  all  the  vvate 
and  fish,  and  scattered  them  in  every  direction,  and   to  a  great 
distance. 

j.  The  barometer  falls  very  little  during  the  passage  of  the 
spout.  (See  the  Natchez  hurricane  of  1827,  Espy,  page  337.) 
Not  more  than  \t  frequently  does  during  gentle  showers. 

k.  Persons  have  been  taken  up,  carried  some  distance,  and  if 
not  projected  against  some  object  in  the  way,  or  some  object 
against  them,  have  usually  been  set  down  gently  and  uninjured. 

I.  Buildings  which  stood  upon  posts,  with  a  free  passage  for  the 
air  under  them,  although  in  the  path  of  the  tornado,  escaped  un- 
disturbed. (Olrnstead's  account  of  the  New  Haven  tornado, 
American  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  340  ) 

m.  A  chisel  taken  from  a  chest  of  tools,  and  stuck  fast  in  the 
wall  of  the  house.  (Ibid.) 

n.  Fowls  have  had  all  their  feathers  stripped  from  them  in  an 
instant  and  run  about  naked  but  uninjured. 

o.  Articles  of  furniture,  etc.,  have  been  found  torn  in  pieces  by 
antagonistic  force. 

p.  Frames  taken  from  looking-glasses  without  breaking  the 
glass.  Nails  drawn  from  the  roofs  of  houses  without  disturbing 
the  tiles. 

q.  Hinges  taken  from  doors — mud  taken  from  the  bed  of  a  stream 
(the  water  being  first  removed.)  and  let  down  on  a  house  cover- 
ing it  completely — a  farmer  taken  up  from  his  wagon  and  carried 
thirty  rods,  his  horses  carried  an  equal  distance  in  another  direc- 
tion, the  harness  stripped  from  them,  and  the  wagon  carried  off 
also,  one  wheel  not  found  at  all.  (American  Journal  of  Science, 
vol.  xxxvii,  p.  93.) 

Pieces  of  timber,  boards  and  clapboard,  driven  into  the  side  of 
a  hill,  as  no  force  of  powder  could  drive  them,  etc.,  etc. 

Such  are  some,  but  by  no  means  all,  the  peculiar  effects  result- 
ing from  the  action  of  a  tornado.  Many  others  have  been  sur- 
veyed and  mapped,  but  I  have  not  space  for  them.  Conforming 
to  my  avowed  purpose  of  avoiding  all  theoretic  discussion  until 
the  facts  are  fully  presented  to  you,  I  waive  inquiry  into  the  char- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  83 

ac'er  of  the  force  which  creates  this  condition.  A  few  words  only 
as  to  the  localities  where  they  are  most  frequent.  Waterspouts 
are  most  common  in  the  West  Indies  and  other  localities  where 
hurricanes  are  most  frequent,  and  doubtless  for  the  same  reason. 
Tornadoes  are  more  prevalent  in  the  United  States  than  in  Europe. 
They  occur  very  rarely  in  the  western  part  of  this  continent,  and 
indeed  thunder  is  not  frequently  heard  in  that  section.  Tornadoes 
in  the  United  States  are  most  frequent  and  most  severe  between 
the  35th  and  45th  parallels  of  latitude,  and  between  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  and  the  western  borders  of  Iowa  and  Missouri. 

They  occur  too  in  much  greater  numbers  and  with  much  greater 
severity  in  some  years  than  others.  The  year  1860  was  such  a 
year,  and  I  conclude  this  notice  of  them  by  copying  the  following 
article  from  a  western  paper,  written  in  the  summer  of  that  year : 

THE  YEAR  OF  HURRICANES. 

'"  The  season  through  which  we  are  parsing,  will  go  far  to  remove 
the  impression  that  the  severest  hurricanes  are  confined  to  the 
tropics.  All  over  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  tornadoes  of 
unprecedented  violence,  extent,  and  destructiveness  have  occurred. 
At  least  three  hundred  lives  have  been  lost  by  the  force  of  the 
elements.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  cycle  of  tornadoes. 

Within  a  fortnight  there  have  been  four  in  the  Middle  and  the 
Western  States,  one  extending  from  Louisville  up  to  Central  Ohio, 
one  in  Cattaraugus  county  in  Western  New  York,  one  in  Arm- 
strong and  the  adjoining  counties  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  and 
now  one  in  Iowa  and  Northern  Illinois,  which,  it  is  said,  has  sur- 
passed all  the  others  in  violence  and  destructiveness. 

Whole  villages  have  been  demolished,  and  their  inhabitants 
either  killed  outright,  or  fearfully  mangled  by  the  falling  of  houses, 
the  mad  sweep  of  the  winds,  or  the  flying  of  timbers  and  trees. 
The  imagination  can  hardly  paint  the  terror  which  has  overtaken, 
in  stern  reality,  the  inhabitants  of  the  devastated  districts.  It 
must  have  been  witnessed  to  be  realized. 

Never  before  has  our  country  been  visited  by  so  many,  or  so 
widely  destructive  hurricanes  as  during  the  present  year.  They 


84  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

have  rushed  through  the  country  with  resistless  fury,  uprooting 
trees,  demolishing  fences,  houses,  and  churches,  and  even  taking 
loaded  freight  cars  from  their  tracks  and  dashing  them  to  pieces. 
The  space  traversed  by  the  last  great  tornado,  in  Illinois  and  Iowa, 
was  fully  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length.  The  force  of 
the  wind  has  been  almost  incredible.  Tin  from  roofs  was  carried 
over  twenty  miles ;  large  brick  houses  were  lifted  completely  from 
their  foundations  and  twisted  around  in  the  air,  before  being 
dashed  to  fragments  upon  the  ground.  Churches  were  demolished 
with  a  single  thunder  gust,  and  the  whirling  and  snapping  of 
whole  forests  of  trees,  as  they  were  caught  up  in  the  folds  of  the 
tremendous  whirlwinds,  was  awfully  grand  to  hear  and  to  see. 

In  all  cases  the  electric  forces  appear  to  have  been  combined 
with  the  atmospheric  agitation.  The  fearful  velocity  and  power 
of  the  wind — estimated  to  have  traversed  space  at  a  speed  of 
from  sixty  to  seventy  miles  an  hour — was  alone  sufficiently  ter- 
rific. But  when  to  this  was  added  the  roar  of  the  most  startling 
and  tremendous  claps  of  thunder,  and  the  seething  glances — flash 
after  flash — of  the  lightning,  it  is  no  wonder  that  a  scene  was 
presented  which  struck  men  dumb  with  fear  and  alarm,  and  even 
made  the  stoutest  hearts  to  quake.  The  awful  grandeur  of  the 
storm,  as  the  whole  k>  artillery  of  heaven  "  seemed  let  loose  upon 
the  stricken  globe,  was  indescribable.  Add  to  this  the  groans  of 
wounded  men,  and  the  shrieks  and  prayers  of  terror-stricken 
women  and  children,  ending  in  a  catalogue  of  dead,  lying  cold 
and  stiff  in  every  stage  of  mangled  deformity,  and  we  have  a  pic- 
ture of  human  desolation  which  transcends  in  horror  all  the  con- 
vulsions of  nature." 

Having  thus  examined  the  distinctive  characters  and  peculi- 
arities of  the  different  conditions,  we  are  now  prepared  to  investi- 
gate understandingly  the  systems  of  conditions  which  exist  upon 
this  continent,  and  characterize  its  climatology  and  its  weather, 
but  we  will  enter  upon  that  branch  of  our  inquiry  in  a  distinct 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  THE  SYSTEMS  OF  CONDITIONS  ON  THE  CONTINENT  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA  AND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Three  distinct  and  diverse  systems  of  conditions  in  the  United  States,  pass- 
ing over  the  continent  in  three  distinct  and  different  paths — The  first,  the 
Atlantic  system — its  conditions  originate  upon  the  Atlantic  or  its  connect- 
ed seas  and  gulfs,  or  in  the  counter  trade  they  furnish — move  N.W.  and 
N.  and  enter  upon  the  southwestern  and  southern  states — curve  thence  and 
move  to  the  N.E. — The  second  originate  upon  the  Pacific,  move  to  the 
N.E.  on  to  and  over  the  coast  and  continent — The  third,  a  part  of  the 
tropical  belt  of  rain  which  covers  the  Gulf  coast,  Southern  Mexico  and 
Central  America  in  midsummer— Direction  in  which  the  different  systems 
movc — The  supply  of  rain  depends  upon  these  conditions — Intermediate 
between  these  systems,  an  arid  area — not  all  or  entirely  a  desert — all  parts 
of  it  reached  by  one  or  the  other  of  the  systems,  but  temporarily — that 
area  scantily  supplied  with  rain — These  systems  evidence  of  law,  order 
and  organization — All  peculiarities  in  our  climatology  dependent  upon 
them — Developed  thirteen  years  ago  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  Weather" 
— Not  since  denied,  but  ignored  by  scientists — accepted  and  adopted  by 
practical  men — Focal  paths  of  the  conditions  and  what  is  meant  by  them — 
Their  situation  in  winter  in  the  Atlantic  system — Rain-fall  under  and  on 
either  side  of  the  focal  path — Situation  of  the  Atlantic  focal  path  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1854 — Temperature  under  and  on  either  side  of  it— Rain-fall  for 
that  month,  under  and  on  either  side  of  it — Winds  under  and  on  either 
side  of  it — Weather  south  of  the  focal  path,  warm — The  same  thing  true 
in  respect  to  the  single  conditions — Situation  of  the  focal  path  in  March, 
1854 — Extension  N.W.  and  N.— Situation  of  the  focal  path  in  April — Had 
extended  still  further  W.  and  N.W.  and  N. — Situation  in  May  and  June — 
Rapidly  extending  W.  and  N.W.  and  N.— conforming  to  its  annual  progress 
but  more  rapid  and  concentrated  than  usual,  leaving  an  unusual  drought 
behind  it — Situation  in  July  and  August — unusual  extension  and  concen- 
tration W.  and  N.W.  and  N. — Area  of  the  consequent  remarkable  drought — 
Descent  of  the  focal  path  again  in  autumn  and  winter — Extension  less 
regular  on  the  Atlantic  coast  than  in  the  interior  —Annual  rain-fall  upon 
the  eastern  states,  with  chart — Effect  of  this  annual  ascent  and  descent  of 
the  focal  path  on  our  climatology — causes  rainy  and  dry  seasons  at  the  dif- 


8G  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ferent  points — Affects  the  temperature — Produces  sudden  changes — Ex- 
plains the  reason  why  consumptives  go  to  Minnesota — Why  storms  appear 
at  the  southwest  in  winter  and  showers  at  the  northwest  in  summer — Ex- 
plains the  general  winds — Prevalent  winds  in  Florida — Prevalent  winds 
in  eastern  Arkansas — in  the  Indian  Territory — in  Tennessee — in  the  N. 
west  and  northern  states — in  New  England — Explains  why  the  winds  pre- 
vail from  the  intermediate  instead  of  cardinal  points  of  the  compass — Chart 
of  the  isothermal  lines  for  the  winter— their  descent  in  the  Mississippi 
valley  in  winter,  below  the  40th  parallel — Their  ascent  at  the  same  time 
above  the  40th  parallel — Explanation  of  anomalies — Owing  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  focal  paths  of  the  two  systems  at  that  time — Climatology  of 
the  Pacific  states — more  simple,  but  has  the  same  elements — Its  conditions 
move  from  the  Pacific  in  a  northeasterly  direction — Have  a  focal  path  like 
those  of  the  Atlantic  system — that  path  has  a  similar  transit  to  the  north 
in  summer — that  transit  produces  a  like  effect  upon  the  temperature — pro- 
duces like  rainy  and  dry  seasons — has  similar  attendant  and  prevalent 
winds — The  Pacific  conditions  are  less  intense — the  phenomena  less  violent 
and  more  uniform — Description  of  the  third  system  of  conditions — Reaches 
the  Gulf  coast  and  Central  America  in  summer  only — movement  of  the 
conditions  in  that  system,  and  their  character — Summer  rain-fall  under 
that  system. 

There  are  three  distinct  and  diverse  systems  of  atmospheric  con- 
ditions passing  over  this  continent  in  distinct  and  different  paths. 

The  first  is  the  ATLANTIC  SYSTEM,  which  consists  of  conditions 
that  originate  upon  the  Atlantic  Ocean  within  the  tropic-,  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or 
form  in  the  Equatorial  current  which  comes  from  that  part  of  the 
tropics,  and  moving  N.  and  N.W.  enter  upon  the  Southern  and 
Southwestern  states  of  the  Union,  curving  and  moving  to  the 
northeast,  supplying  the  Eastern  and  (  entral  States  with  rain. 

The  conditions  of  the  second  s  stem  originate  upon  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  move  in  upon  the  Western  coast,  and  supply  Califor- 
nia and  the  Northwestern  states  and  territories,  the  British  terri- 
tories and  Alaska,  and  the  country  northeastward  of  them. 

The  third  system  is  a  part  of  the  tropical,  central  belt  of  rain 
which  surrounds  the  earth,  and  which  moves  up  in  summer  far 
enough  north  to  cover  some  portion  of  Florida  and  the  Gulf 
Coast,  the  West  India  Islands,  Southern  Mexico  and  Central 
America.  The  path  of  the  conditions  in  this  central  tropical  belt, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SY6TEM.  87 

is  from  the  eastward  to  the  westward,  across  Southern  Mexico 
and  Central  America  and  out  into  the  Pacific. 

The  path  of  the  Atlantic  conditions  is  northward  from  the  Gulf 
States,  curving  to  the  N.E.  and  passing  off  on  to  the  North 
Atlantic. 

The  path  of  the  Pacific  system  of  conditions  is  northeastwardly 
from  the  Pacific,  across  the  northwestern  part  of  the  continent, 
into  the  Arctic  Circle. 

To  these  different  systems  of  conditions,  and  their  diverse  paths, 
we  owe  fundamentally  the  diverse  character  of  the  climates  of  our 
country.  Thus,  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  is  largely 
supplied  with  moisture  by  the  Atlantic  conditions.  The  western 
coast  from  San  Diego  to  the  Arctic  Circle  is  supplied — Califor- 
nia moderately  and  Oregon,  Alaska,  and  the  country  east  of  them 
abundantly — by  the  Pacific  system.  And  Southern  Mexico  and 
Central  America  are  abundantly  supplied  during  their  rainy  sea- 
son by  the  central  belt  which  moves  up  over  them  in  summer ; 
intermediate  between  these  three  systems,  Lower  California  and 
Northern  Mexico,  the  valley  of  the  Gila,  Western  New  Mexico, 
the  Staky  Plain,  the  valley  of  the  Colorado  and  Utah,  and  the 
territory  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  west  of  the  100th  merid- 
ian, are  in  some  places  nearly,  and  in  all  comparatively  dry  or 
desert.  Both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  systems  reach  them  by  an 
extension  of  the  paths  of  their  conditions  at  particular  seasons  of 
the  year,  but  those  extensions  are  for  brief  periods,  temporary  and 
exceptional — the  Atlantic  extending  up  upon  a  part  of  them  in 
summer,  and  the  Pacific  system  reaching  down  on  a  part  in  win- 
ter, as  we  shall  see.  In  this  diverse  system  of  conditions  and  in 
their  paths,  we  shall  find  law,  order,  and  organization,  and  we 
shall  also  find  an  explanation  of  all  the  phenomena  and  peculiari- 
ties in  the  climatology  of  our  country.  No  savan  or  meteorol- 
ogist, whatever  his  position  or  pretensions,  who  ignores  the  exist- 
ence of  the  systems,  and  their  transits,  has  ever  explained  or  can 
ever  explain  them.  When  I  was  writing  the  "  Philosophy  of  the 
weather,"  the  differences  in  these  systems  became  very  apparent 
to  me,  but  it  was  not  until  the  "  Army  Meteorological  Register  " 


88  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTKM. 

was  published,  that  I  was  enabled  to  trace  and  develop  them.  In 
an  appendix  to  that  book,  I  traced  the  systems  and  their  transits 
by  tables  and  diagrams,  and  showed  their  effect  in  producing  our 
varieties  of  climate  and  differences  of  fertility  and  sterility.  Prof. 
Henry,  with  the  book  before  him,  and  the  facts  demonstrated  by 
mathematical  expression,  while  publishing  his  series  of  compila- 
tions in  the  Patent  Office  Report,  at  the  expense  of  the  country, 
professedly  for  the  people  of  the  country,  and  professing  by  im- 
plication at  least  to  give  them,  and  induce  them  to  believe  he  had 
given  themaS  the  important  facts  pertaining  to  the  subject,  ignored 
also  that  most  important  discovery. 

But  the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  or  some 
writer  connected  with  it,  (whom  I  do  not  know,)  appreciated  and 
adopted  the  substance  of  that  discovery  and  appendix,  in  an 
elaborate  article  on  American  Cotton,  Wool,  and  Tobacco,  and 
Climatology  with  reference  to  them,  with  the  following  recommen- 
dation, in  the  monthly  report  of  November  and  December,  1864  : 

"These  maps  are  taken  from  Butler's  Philosophy  of  the 
Weather,  one  of  the  most  practical  books  on  Meteorology,  and 
one  that  should  be  studied  by  every  farmer  desiring  to  learn  the 
character  of  that  atmosphere  which  rules  the  productiveness  of 
the  earth." 

I  have  spoken  of  the  focal  paths  of  the  conditions ;  by  that  I 
mean  the  paths  in  which  the  greatest  number  of  conditions,  or  the 
most  intense  conditions,  or  the  focus  of  precipitation  in  the  condi- 
tions, pass  for  the  time  being,  over  the  country.  Thus,  to  speak 
generally,  the  path  of  the  Atlantic  conditions  is  upon  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  United  States,  and  there  the  greater  num- 
ber of  those  conditions,  or  the  most  intense  of  them,  or  the  focal 
precipitating  parts  of  those  which  spread  all  over  the  Eastern 
states,  are  found.  This  appears  quite  obvious  upon  a  bare  inspec- 
tion of  the  rain-chart  for  the  winter  season  of  the  year.  The 
following  is  an  abridgement  of  one  (probably  as  accurate  as  any), 
which  accompanied  the  "  Army  Meteorological  Register."  The 
map  is  without  territorial  subdivisions,  but  the  great  lakes,  great 
rivers  and  coast  outline  are  given,  and  the  reader,  holding  it  right 
side  up,  cannot  mistake  the  location  of  the  lines. 


THE  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM. 
FIG.  23. 


89 


Upon  an  examination  of  this  chart,  it  will  be  seen  that  west  of 
a  line  drawn  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
the  fall  of  rain  and  melted  snow  is  but  two  inches  for  the  three 
winter  months.  Upon  a  space  nearly  parallel  with  that,  on  the 
east  of  it,  the  fall  is  but  three  inches.  On  still  another  space 
farther  east,  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Gulf  of 


90  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

St.  Lawrence,  the  fall  is  but  five  inches.  Upon  still  another  spac 
of  like  character,  further  to  the  east,  and  curving  to  the  northeast 
it  is  seven  inches.  And  on  still  another,  curving  to  the  northwest 
where  the  conditions  entering  upon  the  Gulf  Coast  move  up  over 
the  southwestern  states,  and  curving  again  to  the  northeast,  it  is 
ten  inches,  while  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Carolinas,  the  fall 
is  but  eight  inches.  That  portion  over  which  the  fall  is  ten  inches 
is  the  winter  focal  path  of  the  Atlantic  conditions — for  obviously 
the  rain  was  carried  there  by  those  conditions,  and  they  must  have 
been  more  numerous  or  more  intense,  or  their  focal  portions  of 
precipitation  must  have  passed  over  that  portion  of  the  states. 
It  will  be  observed  that  a  still  greater  fall  was  experienced  where 
the  conditions  were  met  by  the  mountain  chains  of  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  and  Tennessee,  where  the  fall  reaches  to  twelve,  fif- 
teen, and  eighteen  inches.  I  have  not  implicit  faith  as  a  rule 
in  the  accuracy  of  the  various  registries  of  the  weather,  and  es- 
pecially in  reference  to  the  fall  of  rain  and  direction  of  the  wind. 
I  have  in  my  investigations  quite  too  often  found  them  differing 
very  much  where  kept  by  different  persons  in  the  same  place  or 
at  different  places  very,  near  together,  and  I  have  found  them  very 
often,  from  my  own  personal  knowledge,  differing  materially  from 
the  facts ;  but  I  think  the  registers  kept  by  the  officers  of  our 
army  are  quite  as  reliable  as  any  we  have  had,  or  are  likely  to 
have,  under  our  present  system.  But  however  that  may  be,  abso- 
lute truth  is  not  essential  to  our  purpose  in  this  inquiry,  and  this 
chart  founded  on  Army  Registers  is  doubtless  sufficiently  correct 
for  that  purpose. 

But  in  one  particular  it  is  not  sufficiently  correct.  During  the 
months  of  December  and  January,  the  focal  path  is  descending 
rapidly  to  the  southeast  and  east.  It  is  not  until  after  the  first  of 
February,  and  not  always  so  early  as  the  middle  of  that  month, 
that  the  conditions  begin  to  extend  their  paths  to  the  west,  over 
the  Gulf  coast  and  States,  and  to  the  northwest  and  north,  as  they 
curve  to  the  northeast.  The  chart,  therefore,  does  not  show  the 
lines  and  rain-fall  when  the  focal  path  is  at  its  greatest  descent  in 
February.  I  deemed  it  important,  therefore,  to  ascertain  the  loca- 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


91 


tion  of  that  focal  path  as  near  as  could  be  on  the  1st  of  February, 
and  trace  it  thence,  as  it  moved  to  the  west  and  north,  month  by 
month,  until  it  attained  its  highest  elevation  about  the  1st  of  Au- 
gust. It  seemed  important  also  to  take  a  specific  year,  and  I 
selected  the  year  1854,  because  the  last  one  embraced  in  the  pub- 
lication, and  because  it  was  characterized  by  a  memorable  drouth. 
The  following  diagram  shows  the  position  in  which  I  found  that 
focal  path  on  the  1st  of  February,  1854,  and  also  the  path  of  the 
Pacific  conditions,  as  shown  by  the  shading  and  arrows,  and  the 
comparative  extent  to  which  they  deposit  their  moisture  on  the 
mountains  which  lie  in  their  path : 

FIG.  24 


The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  conditions  moved. 
The  intermediate  space  between  these  two  systems  of  conditions 
is  left  unshaded,  not  because  no  rain  at  all  fell  upon  it,  but  because 
there  did  not  fall  upon  any  portion  of  it,  with  here  and  there  an  ex- 
ception, more  than  two  inches  of  rain  for  the  three  months,  and 
where  only  two  inches  or  less  of  rain  falls,  even  during  a  single 
month,  drought  may  be  said  to  exist.  The  rule  is  arbitrary,  but 
convenient  for  illustration.  The  following  table  exhibits  the 


92 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


amount  of  rain  which  fell  at  the  various  posts  situated  under  this 
focal  path,  with  the  mean  of  previous  years,  in  February. 


1854. 

FEBRUARY. 

1854. 

Mean. 

Key  West       

2.55 
4.70 
6.89 
2.21 
3.40 
5.55 
12.83 

1.38 
2.16 
3.01 
1.01 
2.72 
4.95 
6.04 
4.91 
2.33 

"    Brooke                

"    Mead  

"    Pierce  

Baton  Rouge,  

5.50 
2.84 

Fort  Moultrie,  

It  will  be  seen  that  there  was  an  excess  at  every  station.  The 
conditions  were  not  more  numerous  probably,  but  they  were  more 
concentrated — folded  down,  so  to  speak — and  confined  to  the 
focal  path,  and  did  not  spread  out  to  the  west  and  north  as  much 
as  usual,  and  for  that  reason  the  fall  of  rain  was  greater  and  tem- 
perature higher  on  the  focal  path,  and  at  the  stations  enumerated. 

If  now  we  look  at  stations  to  the  west  and  north  of  the  then 
depressed  focal  path,  and  adjoining  it,  we  shall  find  the  fall  was 
less  than  the  mean,  during  that  month  and  also  in  January. 


JANUARY. 

FEBRUARY. 

Fort  Towson,  Indian  Territory,  
Mean                . 

1.01 

3.13 

2.00 

2.97 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory,  

0.30 
1.33 

1.43 
2.26 

Fort  Smith   Arkansas 

1.37 

2.05 

1.96 

2.17 

0.65 

2.40 

Mean..  . 

1.93 

3.37 

The  following  table  will  also  show  the  actual  temperature 
the  same  places  under  the  focal  path  during  the  month  of  Janui 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


93 


LAT. 

LON. 

JAN. 

Fort  Moultrie,  

32.45 

79.51 

50  83 

Mean  of  28  years,  .    . 

50  36 

27.30 

80  20 

67  91 

Meun  of  5  yea  s,       . 

62  T^ 

28  01 

82  00 

63  75 

Mean  of  3  years 

CO    Afl 

Fort  Brooke,  

28.00 

82  28 

62  94 

Mean  of  25  years,  

fil  ^ 

Fort  Myers,.  .*  

26.38 

82.00 

fi7  'Sfi 

Mean  of  4  years    . 

Key  West, 

24.32 

81  48 

71  75 

Mean  of  14  years 

66  68 

30  18 

87  27 

54  71 

Mean  of  17  years,  

53  61 

31.12 

88.02 

51  52 

Mean  of  14  years,       

50  44 

Baton  Eouge,  

30.26 

91.18 

53.43 

Mean  of  24  years. 

53  47 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  temperature,  also,  was  above  the  mean 
in  January  at  every  post  under  the  concentrated  focal  path,  ex- 
cept Baton  Rouge,  and  there  it  was  at  the  mean.  We  shall  see 
hereafter  that  Baton  Rouge  was  near  its  western  line. 

Now  by  the  following  table,  we  see  that  at  the  same  time,  at 
the  posts  surrounding  this  path,  west  and  north,  the  temperature 
was  below  the  mean : 


JANUARY. 


1854. 

Mean. 

Western  Ttxas. 

59.34 

60.41 

"    Ewell         

50.47 

52.92 

"    Inee 

47.24 

49.46 

Indian  Territory. 
Fort  Towon           .         .... 

36.32 

43.14 

Forts  Gibson,  Washita,  and  Arbuckle, 
in  much  the  same  proportions, 

Arkansas. 
Fort  Smith  

33.92 

40.18. 

THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
TABLE  CONTINUED. 


JANUARY. 

1854. 

Mean. 

Missouri. 

25.47 
31.75 
29.08 
32.38 
28.71 

3144 
34.04 
29.25 
33.67 
30.18 

Kentucky. 
Newport  Barracks,  

Pennsylvania. 
Alleghany  Arsenal 

Delaware. 
Fort  Delaware.       .              

New  York  Harbor. 

And  this  was  in  obedience  to  a  general  law.  It  is  generally 
cool  or  cold  west  or  north  of  the  focal  path,  when  concentrated,  as 
then,  and  always  cool  or  cold  when  the  focus  of  a  storm  passes  to 
the  south  or  southeast  of  a  place,  and  warm  when  it  passes  to 

the  north  or  northwest.     In  the  first  case  the  storm  clears  off.  as 

«i/ ' 

it  is  expressed,  cold, — the  wind  hauling  through  the  north  lo  the 
northwest,  as  the  focus  of  the  storm  passes  by  to  the  south.  In 
the  second  case,  the  wind  hauls  round  by  the  south,  as  the  focus 
of  the  storm  passes  by  to  the  north  of  the  place,  and  it  clears  off 
from  the  S.W.,  warm.  When  the  latter  becomes  the  rule,  "  sum- 
mer sets  in"  as  it  is  said.  Please  remember  and  observe  these 
facts,  for  they  are  of  great  importance  in  several  respects,  as  will 
appear  hereafter,  more  fully  and  clearly. 

The  following  cut  and  table  are  inserted  to  show  the  situation 
of  the  focal  path  in  March,  of  the  same  year,  when  it  was  rapid- 
ly extending  west  along  the  Gulf  coast,  northwest  on  to  the  Indian 
Territory,  and  north  on  to  Missouri  and  over  Kentucky.  Its  pro- 
gress west  #nd  northwest  was  greater  than  its  progress  north. 
This  will  be  alluded  to  hereafter.  In  this  table  I  give  not  only 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  90 

the  rain-foil  for  March,  but  also  that  for  January  and  February, 
with  the  annual  means,  that  you  may  continue  to  compare  them 
as  we  proceed.  I  have  remarked  that  Baton  Rouge  was  near 
the  western  line  of  the  focal  path,  and  you  will  observe  that  the 
extension  was  felt  at  that  post  and  at  Fort  Barrancas  as  soon  as 
the  movement  of  the  focal  path  to  the  west  and  north  commenced 
in  February. 

FIG.  25. 


1854. 

JANUARY. 

FEBRUARY. 

MARCH. 

Fort  Barrancas,  Pensacola  Bay,.  .  .  . 
Mean,  

3.45 

8.87 

5.55 
4.95 

7.21 

5.87 

Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana,  

2.85 

5.50 

6.15 

Mean,  

5.26 

4.91 

4  68 

Fort  Towson,  Indian  Territory,  
Mean,  *    . 

1.01 
3  13 

2.00 
2.97 

5.10 

4.38 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory,  
Mean,  

0.30 
1.33 

1.43 
2.26 

7.83 

2.54 

Fort  Smith,  Arkansas,       .. 

1.37 

2.05 

7.05 

Mean,.       .                     . 

1.96 

2.17 

2.92 

St.  Louis   Arsenal,  .     . 

0.65 

2.40 

7.10 

Mean  ...       . 

1.93 

3.37 

3.82 

Newport  Barracks,  Kentucky.... 

3.20 

5.30 

8.10 

(No  Mean  given,) 

96  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Now  run  your  eye  over  the  diagram  and  table  and  see  how  the 
conditions  extended  their  path  to  the  west  and  north  in  March,  on 
to  the  western  part  of  Florida  and  the  eastern  and  northern  part 
of  Louisiana,  curving  on  the  Indian  Territory,  and  covering  Mis- 
souri and  Kentucky.  The  evidence  that  they  were  following  their 
annual  course  and  obeying  a  general  law,  although  in  advance  of 
their  usual  mean  progress,  and  the  precipitation  was  in  excess  of 
the  annual  mean,  is  perfectly  satisfactory.  The  movement  was 
a  general  one.  It  occurred  at  all  the  stations,  and  although  some- 
what early  and  excessive,  was  in  precise  conformity  with  an  an- 
nual, unfailing  progress  which  can  be  traced  in  all  the  records 
known  to  the  country.  We  shall  see  clearly  hereafter  what  occa- 
sioned that  more  rapid  progress  and  greater  precipitation,  when 
we  come  to  examine  the  laws  of  the  general  system  which  cre- 
ated the  conditions  and  held  them  to  their  annual  path. 

Following  up  this  most  interesting  development,  we  find  by  the 
record  that  in  April  it  reached  a  curving  line  of  posts,  still  further 
removed  to  the  W.,  N.W.,  and  N.,  and  that  it  was  still  in  advance 
of  its  mean  annual  progress  and  excessive  in  its  precipitation.  I 
give  the  fall  in  January,  February,  and  March,  at  the  same  places 
that  you  may  contrast  them  also  ;  and  you  may  begin  in  this  table 
to  compare  the  rain-fall  in  June  and  July  with  the  means,  to  see 
the  commencement  of  the  drouth,  which  will  be  fully  developed 
as  we  go  on.  I  wish  also  that  you  would  carefully  compare  and 
watch  the  means — for  the  object  of  this  exposition  is  to  show  you 
by  those  means,  the  manner  in  which  the  extension  of  the  focal 
paths  takes  place  every  year,  as  well  as  their  peculiar  early  pro- 
gress and  greater  precipitation  in  that  particular  year. 

We  begin  now  to  reach  the  northwestern  states.  Take  for  in- 
stance the  mean  of  Fort  Leaven  worth  in  Kansas,  and  look  at  il 
separately,  and  see  how  the  paths  gradually  spread  up  over  it 
Or  take  any  other  of  the  western  or  northwestern  stations. 

The  following  cut  and  table  show  the  positions  reached  by 
focal  path  in  April : 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    26. 


97 


TABLE  V. 


APRIL,  1854. 

ANUART. 

EBRUARY 

1 

J 

tH 

| 

Fort  Riley    Kansas  .           

0.00 

0.94 

1.86 

455 

435 

1.10 

O.IK! 

Fort  Leaven  worth,  Kansas,  
Mean                                

0.04 
0.72 

1.78 
1.01 

1.33 
1.61 

»*$ 

5.55 

3.62 

4.5'' 
6.80 

018 
3  '5 

Allegheny  Arsenal,  Pittsburgh,  

2.23 
2.18 

2.33 
2.17 

2.82 
2.70 

%¥o 

224 

3.58 

2.06 
3.56 

1.45 

297 

Fort  Columbus,  New  York  Harbor,  

260 

278 

4.00 
2.92 

0.70 
3.44 

8.80 

3.33 

7.70 

4.78 

2.20 
3.46 

1.90 
317 

2.50 

336 

2.55 

428 

200 

West  Point              

3.52 

5.04 

2.81 

10  53 

5.08 

1.62 

Mean,  

3.60 

3.44 

3.71 

4.55 

6.18 

4.79 

And  here  you  get  not  only  evidence  of  the  continued  extension 
to  the  northwest,  but  of  a  fact  alluded  to  which  could  not  be 
proved  without  anticipating,  that  the  extension  to  the  northwest 
commences  earlier  and  progresses  more  rapidly  than  that  to  the 
north  upon  tie  Atlantic  coast.  The  focal  path  in  conformity  with 
;  the  winter  chart,  covered  Boston  and  New  York  in  February,  prob- 
ably the  early  part,  of  it,  but  had  descended  below  them  in  March. 
And  we  all  know  that  March  and  early  April  are  comparatively 
dry  in  the  northeastern  states.  But  there  were  heavy  floods 


08 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


there  in  April,  1854,  from  the  earliest  extension  of  the  focal  path 
and  the  concentiation  of  the  conditions,  peculiar  to  that  year. 

Let  me  call  your  attention  to  the  appearance  of  the  drouth  at 
a  part  of  the  stations  in  that  table  in  June,  and  the  rest  in  July, 
for  the  same  stations  will  not  appear  in  the  next  table. 

FIG.  27.     MAY,  1854. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


99 


The  preceding  diagrams  show  the  position  of  the  path  in  May 
and  June.  And  in  connection  I  give  a  full  table  of  the  stations 
reached  in  those  months,  so  that  not  only  the  earlier  and  more 
excessive  progress  of  that  year,  and  the  drouth  which  followed 
behind,  may  appear,  but  also  the  mean  annual  progress  in  other 
years.  The  table  is  full  and  instructive  on  each  of  theee  tliree 
points,  and  I  ask  y®u  to  study  it  well.  At  most  of  the  stations 
the  return  of  the  focal  path  on  its  descent  to  the  south  ended  the 
drouth  in  September. 

TABLE  VI. 


JUNE,  1854. 

JANUARY. 

i 

& 

H 

• 

h 

9 

i 

APRIL. 

JM 

M 

w 

|3 

& 

AUGUST. 

i 

Fort  Brown,  
Mean 

0.45 

1.61 

1.50 
2.25 

115 

1.20 

0.05 
0.56 

4.10 
2.21 

7.65 

455 

425 
1  95 

5.00 
2.76 

11.31 

673 

Ilinggold  Barracks,  
Mean,  

0.70 
1.24 

1.69 
1.18 

0.22 
0.72 

0.00 
108 

2.83 
2.09 

10.98 

3.47 

4.06 
3.18 

1.58 
1.50 

3.02 
3.22 

Fort  Merrill  

0.11 

1.99 

0.05 

1.16 

7.66 

4.70 

544 

3.13 

5.01 

Mean,  
Fort  Duncan,  
Mean,  

0.23 
0.05 
0.26 

2.09 
0.69 
1.27 

0.09 
1.50 
1.34 

1.62 
0.00 
0.71 

3.43 
2.53 
1.50 

4.10 
6.83 

5.63 

6.13 
0.83 
335 

3.40 
0.90 
0.93 

4.60 
4.81 
328 

Fort  McKavet 

0.01 

0.77 

2.10 

0.28 

3  72 

0.16 

291 

004 

386 

"    Belknap      

0.11 

1.10 

1.42 

1.75 

497 

8  33 

0.00 

0.75 

1.53 

*'    Kearney,  

0.23 

1.33 

1.87 

2.56 

4.15 

ft40 

3.51 

1.18 

4.60 

Mean,      .... 

0.50 

0.48 

1.55 

268 

6.57 

4.36 

5.07 

2.62 

1  83 

Fort  Laramie,  

018 

0.40 

0.80 

398 

4.46 

3.67 

3.26 

1.27 

1.60 

Mean,  . 

027 

0.71 

1.37 

1.93 

5.39 

2.95 

1.83 

092 

1.33 

Fort  Ridglfy,  

1.20 

0.01 

1.18 

2.83 

6.84 

2.70 

249 

2.28 

2.58 

"    Snelling,  

0.72 

0.03 

1.03 

2.51 

430 

831 

3.92 

1.75 

6.55 

0.73 

0.52 

1.30 

214 

3.17 

3.63 

4.11 

3.18 

3  82 

FortRipley,  

0.67 

0.03 

079 

0.97 

4.34 

3.68 

0.62 

1.69 

440 

Mean 

0.68 

0.37 

1.80 

1  42 

309 

5.15 

520 

2.27 

492 

Fort  Mackinac,  

2.59 

1.23 

1.56 

1.04 

265 

635 

5.67 

4.26 

3.22 

Mean 

1.25 

0.82 

1.14 

1  21 

2.32 

2.81 

320 

287 

2.97 

Fort  Brady,  

2.49 

1.18 

1.34 

2.14 

361 

1.23 

3.21 

3.86 

3.18 

Mean,  .  . 

1.84 

1.13 

J.37 

1.83 

2.  '24 

2.83 

3.73 

3.39 

4.33 

Observe  first,  its  progress  to  the  west  over  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
Fort  Brown  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  opposite  Mat- 
amoras.  It  was  reached  in  May,  and  had  its  greatest  excess  from 
the  Atlantic  conditions  in  June.  But  it  was  also  reached,  like 
the  rest  of  the  Gulf  coast,  later  by  the  central  conditions,  as  shown 
on  the  diagram,  and  had  no  drouth.  Ringgold  Barracks  are  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  further  west  and  north,  and  were  reached  in  June 
and  had  the  drouth  in  August.  Fort  Merrill  is  on  the  Neuces, 


100  THE    ATMOSPHKRIC    SYSTKM. 

further  east,  and  was  reached  in  May  by  the  Atlantic  conditions, 
and  by  the  central  ones  afterwards.  Forts  Duncan,  McKavet, 
and  Belknap  are  in  northwestern  Texas,  and  were  reached  by  the 
Atlantic  conditions  in  May  and  June,  and  then  had  the  drouth. 
Then  observe  secondly,  its  progress  to  the  northwest  and  north. 
Fort  Kearney  is  in  Western  Kansas.  Fort  Laramie  is  in  Ne- 
braska. Forts  Ridgely,  Ripley,  and  Snelling  are  in  Minnesota, 
and  Forts  Brady,  and  Mackinac  in  Michigan.  Run  your  eye 
along  the  columns  opposite  to  those  places  for  1854,  until  you 
come  to  the  excessive  fall  of  the  then  focal  path,  and  continue  it 
on  to  August,  and  contrast  the  actual  fall  of  that  vear  with  the 
mean  which  is  given  immediately  below  it,  and  you  will  realize 
the  extent  and  severity  of  the  drouth,  even  on  those  western 
and  northwestern  states.  Follow  on  until  you  come  to  Forts 
Brady  and  Mackinac,  high  up  in  Northern  Michigan,  which  were 
beyond  the  drouth.  As  this  table  contains  the  means  also,  you 
can  see  again  its  average  annual  progress  at  these  other  posts,  and 
upon  the  northwestern  states,  as  well  as  the  continued  develop- 
ment and  extension  of  the  drouth.  That  extended  drouth,  it 
will  be  seen,  reached  Nebraska  and  Minnesota  in  July,  but  its  full 
effect  was  not  felt  there  until  August,  when  it  reached  beyond 
Fort  Kearney  and  almo-t  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
It  reached  Forts  Snelling  and  Ripley  m  Minnesota,  but  did  not 
reach  Forts  Brady  and  Mackinac  in  1\1  ichigan,  which  are  situated 
in  a  somewhat  higher  latitude  and  above  its  northern  limit. 

The  conditions  continued  to  extend  their  paths  to  the  west  and 
north,  till  they  reached  the  position  shown  by  the  following  cut 
and  table  in  July  and  August.  Glancing  at  the  table  you  will 
perceive  that  their  extreme  western  edge  reached  Fort  Yuma  and 
San  Diego  on  the  Pacific,  gave  New  Mexico  an  unusual  quantity 
of  rain  and  spent  themselves  upon  Northern  Minnesota,  North- 
ern Michigan,  and  Southeastern  British  America. 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    29. 


101 


TABLE  VII. 

Situation  of  the  focus  of  Precipitation  in  July  and  Augi 


JUNE. 

JOLT. 

AUG 

SEPT. 

ocr. 

New  Mexico. 
Fort  Thome,  

0.08 
028 

2.23 

250 

6.01 
1  19 

3.50 
267 

0.00 
1  37 

Santa  Fe,  
Fort  Defiance,  
"    Yuma,  
Pan  Diego, 

0.32 
1.24 
0.00 
0<>2 

4.11 
3.94 
0.01 
007 

3.86 
524 
2.37 
1  35 

4.06 
3.47 
0.17 
0.13 

2.50 
0.62 
030 
0.01 

Fort  Snelling,  Minnesota 
"    Brady 

3.31 
1  23 

3.92 
321 

1.75 

386 

6.35 
3.18 

123 

3.40 

"    Mackinac,  

635 

5.67 

1.26 

3.22 

2.28 

I  will  now  add  a  table  showing  the  extension  of  the  tropical 
belt  of  rains  from  the  south  up  on  to  the  Gulf  coast,  forming  the 
southern  limit  of  drought  as  shown  on  the  diagram. 


1854. 

JULY. 

AUG. 

Fort  Moultrie 

5  69 

3  ^2 

Kev  West,  

3.45 

5.83 

Fort  Myers,  Fla.,   ..   .     

9.70 

9.90 

'•   Brooke,  

15.53 

11.23 

"   Meade,    

855 

10.20 

Baton  Rouge  

6.55 

7.41 

102 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


I  have  added  to  the  foregoing  cut  the  situation  of  the  focal  path 
of  the  Pacific  conditions  in  August.  The  table  which  will  verify 
its  correctness,  will  be  given  hereafter. 

The  descent  of  the  Atlantic  focal  patn  in  the  fall  and  winter 
is  but  the  counterpart  of  its  ascent,  and  it  reaches  its  southern 
position  again  in  February,  having  made  the  transit  up  and  down, 
in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  general  system.  I  give  a  single 
table  with  a  few  representative  stations  on  a  curve  in  the  south- 
western, western,  northwestern  and  northern  states,  for  the  entire 
year,  in  illustration  of  both  ascent  and  descent.  The  focal  path 
is  not  so  sharply  defined  in  Autumn,  but  of  that  hereafter. 


a 

si 

cs 

o2 

• 

g 

«3 

i 

1-5 

g 
E 

1 

APRIL. 

1 

H 

'J 

s 

AUGUSl 

0 

1 

03 

o 
K 

DEC:;MI 

Fort  Duncan   Texas 

0  *>6 

1.27 

1  34 

.71  1  50  5.63 

3.35  0.93  S.^S  1.43  1.61 

089 

"   Smith,  Arkansas,  

1.66 

2.17  2.92 

5.10  4.46  4.74 

3.82  4.47  3.01  3.43  3.49 

2.F3 

Washita,  Indian  Territory,.  . 

1.65 
1  91 

2.88 

3.27 

R  W 

3.94  5  98  5.04 
3.06,4.18  5.07 

3.57  2.66 
3.67  4.14 

3.87  i  3.06  3.85 
2.88!  2.76  2.38 

1.89 

Fort  Scott  Kansas  

1.92 

1  18 

1.79 

3.70  7  08  8  13 

4.5513.69 

2.30  2.66  3.43 

1  fifl 

"    Winnebago,  Wisconsin  ,. 

0.91  0.82 

1.07 

2  26  2.25  4.24 

4.2113.01 

3.62  2.00  2.01 

1.09 

"    Snelling,  Minnesota  
"    Kearney,  Nebraska,.  .  .  . 

0.73 
050 

0.52 
048 

1.30 
1  .55 

2.14  3.17  3.63 
2.68  6.57  4  36 

4.11  3.18 

5.07  2.62 

3.32  1.35  1.31 
1.83  O.H8  1.11 

0.67 
0.83 

"    Mackinac,  Michigan,..  . 
"   Niagara,  N.  Y  ,  

1.25 
2.25 

0.82 
1.89 

1.14 
2.12 

1.21 
220 

2.32 
2.55 

2.81 
3.28 

3.20 
3.49 

2.87 
3.04 

2.97  2.12 
3.95  2.37 

1.92 
2.36 

1.24 
2.27 

I  have  not  included  any  of  the  eastern  states  because  the  focal 
path  covers  them  in  December  and  January,  and  sometimes  even 
in  the  early  part  of  February.  This  will  be  seen  by  referring  to 
the  diagram  of  winter  rains.  (Fig.  23.) 

But  when  the  ascent  commences  in  February,  it  first  spreads  out 
over  the  states  to  the  west  and  northwest,  and  continues  to  extend 
in  that  direction  much  faster  than  over  the  Atlantic  states.  In  a 
class  of  seasons,  this  is  so  much  the  case  that  serious  spring 
drouths  are  occasioned  in  the  northeastern  states.  I  shall  recur 
to  this  when  I  come  to  classify  and  explarn  our  drouths,  but  I 
mention  the  fact  here  and  wish  it  remembered.  It  will  be  found 
hereafter  not  only  an  important  fact  in  relation  to  drouths,  but 
an  important  element  in  prognosticat'on. 

And  here  I  also  insert,  rather  as  a  matter  of  interest  than  as 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC 


103 


•showing  the  movement  of  the  system  of  conditions,  ft  chart  of  the 
rain-fall  for  the  year.  It  conforms  of  course  generally,  to  the 
chart,  tables,  and  facts  already  given,  but  the  movements  of  the 
focal  path  are  masked  in  the  general  result.  The  chart  is  copied 
from  the  "  Army  Meteorological  Register."  It  may  not  be  en- 
tirely accurate,  but  I  think  it  is  substantially  so.  It  shows  doubt- 
less, more  clearly  than  the  winter  chart  I  have  given,  the  effect 
of  configuration  on  the  quantity  of  rain,  and  also  where  the  sys- 
tem of  Atlantic  conditions  is  focal  for  the  longest  portion  of  the  year. 

FIG.  30. 


And  now  professional  men,  practical  men,  and  especially  youn< 


104  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

men,  I  have  given  you  the  key  to  the  climatology  of  your  conti- 
nent, in  each  and  all  of  its  various  localities — your  locality,  reader, 
wherever  it  fs.  I  have  given  you  the  key  to  your  RAINY  AND 
DRY  SEASONS — and  they  occur  and  alternate  more  or  less  per- 
fectly everywhere.  I  have  given  you  a  key  to  understand  the 
TEMPERATURE  of  your  locality  as  it  is  affected  by  the  situation 
of  the  focal  path  of  the  conditions  in  its  relation  to  that  locality. 
I  have  given  you  a  key  to  the  SUDDEN  CHANGES  you  all  expe- 
rience so  often  and  talk  so  much  about,  and  you  can  now  under- 
stand them,  and  forecast  them,  as  the  conditions  which  produce 
them,  pass  over  or  within  influential  distance  of  you.  You  will 
understand  why  the  consumptive  leaves  the  Atlantic  coast,  where 
the  conditions  pass  in  winter  with  their  sudden  and  extreme 
changes,  to  seek  restoration  in  the  colder  but  dry  and  compara- 
tively changeless  atmosphere  of  Minnesota,  where  the  conditions 
rarely  pass  or  extend  their  influence  at  that  season  of  the  year. 
You  will  understand  also,  why,  if  in  the  central  or  eastern  states, 
you  do  look  or  may  look  in  the  southwest  in  winter,  and  in  the 
northwest  in  summer  for  the  first  appearance  of  the  advance  clouds 
of  a  stormy  condition,  the  focal  path  being  in  the  one  case  at  the 
south,  and  the  other  at  the  north  ;  and  why,  when  an  approaching 
storm  is  seen  in  the  northwest,  you  may  expect  rain,  and  in  the 
southwest  snow,  east  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  And  you  will 
also  understand  the  PREVALENT  WINDS  of  your  country,  alter- 
nating east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  southerly  to  northerly 
and  from  northerly  to  southerly  as  the  focal  path  of  the  conditions 
is  west  or  north  of  you,  or  east  or  south  of  you,  or  over  you. 
And  you  will  also  understand  the  SPECIAL  WINDS  of  your  climate 
and  their  changes,  remembering  that  these  special  winds  are  parts 
of  conditions,  and  that  you  are  enveloped  in  one  wind,  a  warm 
one,  when  the  condition  is  approaching  you,  and  in  another  and 
cool  one  when  the  condition  is  passing  away  from  you. 

But  on  this  general  subject  of  the  winds  it  may  be  well  to  be 
more  particular,  and  I  copy  the  following  tables  from  Prof.  Cof- 
fin's "  Winds  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere."  The  first  is  in  rela- 
tion to  the  winds  at  Tampa  Bay  on  the  west  coast  of  the  penin- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


105 


sula  of  Florida.  Here  it  will  be  seen  that  the  prevalent  winds 
are  southerly,  during  all  the  time  that  the  focal  path  of  the  con- 
ditions is  ascending  to  the  northwest,  but  that  during  the  winter 
months  they  have  the  northeast  trade. 

No.  50. — Tampa  Bay,  Florida. 
11  YEARS. 


MONTHS. 

MEAN   DIRECTION   OP 
WIND. 

RATE    OF 
PROGRESS. 

Jannary,  

N.      9°    17'   E. 

10 

February,  

S.    86    14    E. 

12 

March       

S     51     17  W. 

12 

April,  

S.    30    23  W. 

10 

May,  

S.      3    56    E. 

14 

June,  

S.    18    33    E. 

26 

July  

S       8    21     E 

35 

August,  

S.    19    58    E. 

29 

September,  

S.    80    46    E 

25 

October,  

N.  66     14    E. 

22 

N    55       2    E 

15 

December                          .  . 

N    27     20    E 

13 

No.  67.— Forts  Gibson,  Smith,  and  Wayne. 
3  stations. 

8  YEARS. 


MONTHS. 

MEAN   DIRECTION   OF 
WIND. 

RATE    OF 
PROGRESS. 

January  

N.  61°     8'  E 

10 

February,  

S.   46    13     E 

20 

March,  

S    46    45     E 

18 

April,  

S     24    52     E 

23 

May,  

S     29    20     E 

60 

June,  

S     31    31     E 

66^ 

July,  

S     33    44     E 

37 

August,  

S    40    28     E 

34 

September,  ... 

S     79    40     E 

01  1 

October,    .  . 

S     70    43     E 

012 

10 

November,  

N.     2      6   W 

19 

December,  

S       8    57    W 

2 

Following  the  focal  path  to  the  northwest  on  to  Arkansas,  we 
6 


106 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


have  at  Forts  Gibson  Smith,  and  Wayne  the  preceding  table,  the 
winds  conforming  to  the  focal  path  which  covers  the  eastern  part 
of  Arkansas  in  winter,  and  the  curvature  of  the  conditions  over 
that  state  as  shown  in  the  diagrams. 

Turning  now  to  Fort  Towson  on  the  Red  river,  in  the  Ind'an 
Territory,  southwest  of  Fort  Smith,  we  have  the  winds  ranging 
through  the  year  from  the  south,  bearing  more  or  less  to  the  west. 
Fort  Towson  as  we  have  seen  lies  southwesterly  of  the  focal  path 
of  the  conditions  as  situated  in  winter. 

No.  65. — Fort  Towson,  on  Red  River. 
8  YEARS. 


MONTHS. 

MEAN   DIRECTION   OP 
WIND. 

RATE    OF 
PROGRESS. 

January,  

S.    34^    1'    W. 

17 

S.    65  42     W. 

22 

March,  

S.   31   11     W. 

26 

April  

S       6  40     W. 

31 

May,  

S.      5  33     W. 

47 

June                      .  . 

S      4  53     W 

49 

July,  

S.      6  21     W. 

56 

August   ....... 

S     13  38     W 

40 

September   

S       5  13     W 

17 

S.   47  37     W. 

16 

November,  

S    44  46     W 

28 

December,  

S.   27     5     W. 

21 

S.    17  48     W. 

29 

Turning  now  to  Nashville,  Term.,  which  is  covered  by  the  focal 
path  even  in  winter,  and  where  the  conditions  are  always  moving 
to  the  northeast,  we  have  the  winds  conforming  to  them,  and  pre- 
vailing between  the  south  and  west  during  every  month  of  the 
year.  Observe  with  what  substantial  regularity  the  winds  grow 
more  southerly  from  February  to  September,  as  the  focal  path  is 
carried  up  by  its  annual  transit  above  the  place  to  the  north  and 
northwest,  and  how  they  turn  to  the  west  again  when  it  return 
in  October. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Nashville,  Tennessee. 


107 


5  YEARS. 


MONTHS. 

MEAN   DIRECTION   OF 
WIND. 

RATE    OF 
PROGRESS. 

January,  

S.     39  Ml'  W. 

30 

February,  

S.    65    22   W. 

22 

March,  

S.    70    35    W. 

21 

April 

S     57    38   W 

41 

May,  

S.   57    29   W. 

38* 

S.   45      1    W. 

49 

July 

S     39    18   W 

27 

August,  

S.    20    31    W. 

25 

September,  

S.   34    30   W. 

18 

October,  

S     81     13   W. 

27 

November,  

S.    62    42    W. 

23 

S.    60    59   W. 

39* 

The  year,  

S.    57    20   W. 

30 

If  now  we  ascend  to  the  northwest,  to  the  stations  from  Iowa 
to  Maine  inclusive,  between  the  parallels  of  45°  arid  50°,  we  have 
the  following  as  the  mean  monthly  direction  of  the  winds,  during 
a  period  of  17  5-12  years. 


MONTHS. 

MEAN   DIRECTION. 

RATE  OF 
PROGRESS. 

CO 

H 
<< 

Q 

% 

6 
R 

January,.  .  . 

N.  58°  40'  W. 

14 

31  00 

N.  47    43   W. 

19 

28.24 

March,-  

N.  24    37    W. 

9 

31.00 

April,  ... 

S.    69    34   W. 

15* 

30.00 

May,  

S.    12    27    W. 

3 

31.00 

June,  

S.    51    31    W. 

18 

30.00 

July,  

S.    64      3    W. 

37 

31.00 

August,  

S.    56    43   W. 

28 

31.00 

S.    69    58    W. 

20 

30.00 

October,  

S.    70    59    W 

19* 

31  00  - 

November,  

N.  50    56   W. 

11 

30.00 

December,  

N.  69    50   W. 

10 

31.00 

108 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


And  at  Ambers  t,  which  is  a  fair  representative  of  New  Eng 
lund,  we  have  the  following : 

Amherst,  Massachusetts. 
5  YEARS. 


MONTHS. 

MEAN   DIRECTION    OF 
WIND. 

RATE    OF 
PROGRESS. 

January 

N    69  ^  42'  W 

36 

Febririry 

N    63    34   W 

35 

March  

N.  53    39   W 

41 

April                

N    55      2    W 

33 

Mav,  

N.  85      9   W. 

22 

June                               . 

S    67      5    W  • 

22 

July  .  . 

S.   70    47    W 

37 

August       

S     88    34   W 

26 

September               

S     76    54    W 

16 

October,  

N.  78    53    W 

30 

.November 

N    55    19    W 

41 

December,  

N    57      2   W 

47 

The  year  

N    73    13   W 

30 

And  the  explanation  of  this  prevalence  of  S.E.  winds  in  the 
eastern  Gulf  states  ;  of  southerly  winds  in  the  western  Gulf 
states;  of  S.W.  winds  in  the  central  states;  and  alternation  of 
N.W.  and  S.W.  winds  in  the  northwestern,  northern,  and  eastern 
states,  is  found  in  the  location  and  extension  of  the  focal  path  of 
the  Atlantic  conditions,  and  the  alternation  of  the  special  winds 
of  the  conditions,  as  they  pass  over  the  northern  and  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  country. 

And  in  the  foregoing  facts  the  reader  will  find  the  reason  why 
the  winds  prevail  from  the  northwest,  northeast,  southeast,  and 
southwest  more  than  from  any  other  points  of  the  compass.  It 
is  because  the  line  of  progress  of  the  conditions,  after  they  curve 
over  the  eastern  part  of  our  country,  is  to  the  northeast,  and  their 
winds -are  either  lateral  or  conform  in  their  direction,  or  blow  in 
opposition  to  their  line  of  progress.  Southerly  winds  prevail  on 
the  south  side  of  the  focal  path,  northwesterly  and  northeasterly 
on  the  north  side.  Where  the  path  is  central,  west  of  the  Alle- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


109 


ghany  mountains,  the  winds  are  southwesterly,  and  east  of  them 
northeasterly.  If  the  conditions  moved  from  one  cardinal  point 
to  another,  the  winds  would  prevail  from  the  cardinal  points. 

And  now  let  us  see  how  perfectly  this  discovery  explains  the 
heretofore  unexplained  peculiarities  of  temperature. 

The  following  is  a  reduced  copy  of  the  chart  of  isothermal 
lines  (lines  of  equal  temperature)  for  the  winter •,  which  accompa- 
nies the  Army  Meteorological  Register.  It  has  been  questioned 
in  some  respects  and  may  not  be  entirely  accurate,  but  it  is  sub- 
stantially so,  and  sufficiently  so  for  illustration. 

FIG.  31. 


If  this  chart  could  have  been  drawn  for  the  first  half  of  Febru- 
ary, when  the  focal  path  is  at  its  extreme  southeastern  depression, 


110  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

its  peculiar  features  would  have  been  much  more  obvious,  but 
they  strikingly  appear  as  it  is. 

Take  then,  1st,  the  isothermal  of  50°.  It  commences  off  the 
coast,  on  the  Gulf  Stream,  where  the  ocean  is  much  warmer  than 
the  land,  a  little  above  the  parallel  of  35° ,  and  descends  till  it 
meets  the  focal  path  of  the  conditions  at  eastern  Georgia,  and 
there  its  descent  is  arrested  until  it  gets  to  the  west  of  that  path 
upon  Texas,  where  it  descends  with  great  rapidity,  as  it  should  do, 
in  accordance  with  the  tables  I  have  given  you.  Observe  the 
sudden  angle  made  by  the  descent,  even  on  the  coast  and  upon  the 
Guff.  It  is  as  cold  at  30°  in  Texas,  as  at  35°  in  N.  Carolina. 

2d.  Observe  again,  that  over  the  Mississippi  Valley  all  the 
lines,  after  passing  the  Alleghanies,  where  of  course  they  are  de- 
pressed by  altitude,  ascend  where  the  focal  path  is  found  in  De- 
cember, and  the  latter  part  of  February,  and  descend  again  rapidly 
after  passing  west  of  that  path.  No  other  sufficient  cause  has 
been  or  can  be  assigned,  than  that  it  is  colder  in  winter  to  the 
west  and  north  of  that  focal  path,  and  warmer  under  it,  as  we  have 
seen  in  the  table  heretofore  given. — Altitude  will  not  explain  it. 

3d.  Observe  again,  that  further  north  the  isothermal  lines  rise 
over  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  great,  unfrozen  lakes,  but  fall, 
lower  even  than  in  the  central  states,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  west  of  it,  conforming  to  the  steady,  dry  cold  weather 
of  these  states  when  the  focal  path  is  southeast  of  them. 

4th.  But  the  most  striking  feature  is  the  ascent  of  the  lines  as 
they  approach  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  the  west  and  northwest. 
As  the  ground  rises  rapidly  in  that  direction,  and  all  our  cold 
winds  have  been  supposed  to  sweep  from  thence,  the  fact  has  been 
difficult  to  credit.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  cannot  be  questioned. 
It  is  ten  degrees  warmer  in  January,  at  Fort  Laramie,  at  the  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  an  altitude  of  45 1 9  feet,  than  on  the 
same  latitude  near  the  Mississippi  river,  at  an  altitude  of  500  feet. 
Making  the  usual  allowance  of  one  degree  of  cold  for  every  300 
feet  of  ascent,  it  should  be  13°  colder  at  Laramie. 

There  is  then  the  very  great  difference  of  twenty-three  degrees, 
1x3  bo  explained.  It  has  not  been  explained.  But  our  key  ex 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


Ill 


plains  it.  Fort  Laramie  is  reached  or  influentially  approached  in 
winter  by  the  southern  edge  of  the  focal  path  of  the  Pacific  winter 
conditions,  and  has  not  only  the  greater  warmth  which  is  found 
under  that  path,  hut  somewhat  of  the  warmer  s  ntherly  and  east- 
erly winds  instead  of  northerly  winds,  which  are  found  on  the 
immediate  southerly  and  easterly  borders  of  both  focal  paths.  The 
following  tables  will  show  this.  And  first  as  to  temperature. 


JAN. 

FEB. 

MARCH. 

APRIL. 

Fort  Laramie,  mean  of  six  years,  Lat. 
42°  12',  Long.  104°  47/,  Altitude  4519 
feet 

31.03 

32.60 

36  81 

47  60 

Fort  Kearney,  6&   years,  Lat.   40°  38', 
Long.  980  57/5  Altitude  2360  feet,.  .  .  , 
Council  Bluffs,  mean  of  7  years,  Lat.  41° 
30',  Long.  950  48',  Altitude  1250  feet, 

21.14 
19.36 

26.11 
25.23 

34.50 
33.77 

47.18 
51.84 

No  station  having  precisely  the  same  latitude  as  Laramie  ex- 
ists. Council  Bluffs  is  the  nearest  to  it,  and  sufficiently  so  for 
illustration.  Now  observe  two  facts  shown  by  the  foregoing  table. 
The  first  is  that  there  is  at  least  ten  degrees  of  difference  in  Jan- 
uary as  stated.  The  second  is  that  the  stations  further  east  feel 
the  extension  of  the  Atlantic  conditions  in  advance  of  Laramie,  and 
the  Pacific  having  moved  beyond  influential  distance,  the  temper- 
ature increases  more  rapidly  in  March  and  April  at  those  stations 
than  at  Laramie. 

In  the  following  table  we  compare  the  winds  for  the  same 
months  in  the  same  year,  and  take  a  year  about  the  middle  of  the 
decade,  1856,  giving  at  the  same  time  the  mean  temperature  and 
range  of  the  thermometer.  Our  comparison  here  is  with  Fort 
Kearney  only,  Council  Bluffs  being  then  broken  up. 

1856,  JANUARY.    TEMPERATURE.  WINDS. 


Mean. 

Max 

Min. 

N. 

N.E. 

E. 

S.E. 

S. 

s.w. 

w. 

N.W. 

Laramie  

19.98 

42 

—  7 

0 

1 

13 

1 

0 

14 

50 

8 

Kearney  

6.05 

38 

—20 

24 

0 

0 

2 

2 

3 

18 

38 

112  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

This  table  does  not  differ  materially  in  its  results  from  the  mean 
of  ten  years.  Looking  to  the  fact  that  Laramie  is  much  more 
elevated,  and  nearly  a  degree  farther  north,  where  northerly 
winds  should  be  more  prevalent,  the  absence  of  northerly  winds 
at  Laramie,  and  their  presence  at  Kearney,  together  with  the 
presence  of  easterly  and  southerly  winds  at  Laramie  and  their 
absence  at  Kearney,  in  the  same  month  of  the  same  year,  indi- 
cate decisively  the  influence  of  the  Pacific  system  upon  the 
weather  at  Laramie.  There  is  nothing  else  in  either  locality  to 
affect  the  result.  The  exposure  of  Laramie  is  open,  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Platte  river  where  Kearney  is  situated  is  broad,  and 
the  bluffs  distant  and  moderate.  There  is  much  other  evidence 
which  might  be  adduced  on  this  point,  but  it  does  not  seem  neces- 
sary to  adduce  it.  The  facts  given  are  sufficient  until  impugned. 

Follow  me  now  to  the  Pacific  states,  and  we  will  analyze  their 
climatology.  We  shall  find  it  much  more  simple,  but  substan- 
tially the  same  in  its  elements. 

In  the  first  place,  we  find  that  the  conditions  all  enter  upon  the 
Pacific  coast  from  the  S.W.  and  move  northeasterly.  We  have 
but  few  data  on  this  subject,  and  those  are  mostly  from  California 
and  Oregon.  All  these  data  prove  that  the  rain-bearing  clouds 
move  in  from  the  southwest,  and  this  is  as  it  should  be.  The  Pa- 
cific is  broad,  and  all  the  conditions  which  reach  the  western  coas,t 
of  the  continent  form  upon  its  surface  and  curve  to  the  JST.E. 
before  they  reach  the  coast.  They  necessarily,  therefore,  reach 
it  from  a  southwesterly  direction  and  pass  on  to  the  northeastward 
precisely  as  the  Atlantic  conditions  do,  above  35°  in  summer  and 
30°  in  winter.  There  is  therefore  precise  conformity  in  respect 
to  the  direction  in  which  the  conditions  move. 

In  the  second  place,  there  is  a  focal  path  in  which  the  condi- 
tions move,  precisely  similar  to  that  found  in  the  Atlantic  system. 
In  the  winter  season,  when  the  southern  limit  of  the  path  is  at  of 
near  San  Diego,  the  focus  of  the  path  is  at  Astoria  in  Oregon, 
and  the  northern  limit  in  the  vicinity  of  Sitka.  The  following 
table  will  illustrate  this,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  in  January,  when 
there  was  very  little  rain  at  San  Diego,  or  at  Sitka,  there  was  2Z 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


113 


inches  at  Astoria,  and  1 1 .8  inches  at  Puget's  sound,  which  is  near- 
ly in  the  same  latitude,  but  lies  in  the  interior,  east  of  the  coast 
range  of  mountains  which  affect  the  rain-fall  there.  In  August 
and  September,  when  the  focal  path  has  moved  up  to  the  north, 
we  find  that  10  and  14  inches  fell  at  Sitka,  while  there  was  none 
in  California  and  very  little  in  Oregon.  There  is  other  evidence 
on  this  point,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  adduce  it. 


3 

1 

1 

| 

f 
•< 

1 

| 

": 

>> 

"3 

>-s 

1 

1 

s 

i 

1 

\ 

>•< 

San  Diego,  Cal.,  

32  41 

0.3 

1.7|1.1 

0.9  0.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.2 

0.0 

0.1 

1.5 

3.4    9.6 

San  Francisco,  

37  48 

1  7 

0.5      4 

2  1!  0.4 

00 

I)  0 

o.o 

04 

0.6 

30 

5.5  188 

Cant.,  Far.  W.,  Cal.,  39  02 

3.3 

0.6!  6.4 

2.2 

0.9 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.3 

0.1 

3.5 

4.6  21.9 

Astoria,  Oregon,  46  11 

27.0 

10.9  6.1 

4.4  5.9 

2.6 

0.0 

2.3 

1.9 

6.7 

13.2 

6.2 

87.2 

Puget's  Sound,  Ore., 

47  07     11.8 

3.9  4.7 

41!0.8 

0.6 

0.5 

1.3 

1.6 

3.6 

5.9 

6.1 

44.8 

Sitka,  Alaska,  

57    3 

2.5 

9.6 

3.5 

33 

1.9 

5.9 

3.7 

10.1 

14.8 

12.7 

7.4 

4.2 

79.5 

The  figures  are  for  inches  and  tenths  of  an  inch  of  rain 

In  the  third  place,  we  find  that  there  is  a  transit  of  this  focal 
path  to  the  north  in  summer,  and  that  all  or  nearly  all  the  condi- 
tions enter  upon  the  coast  in  August  above  California  and  Oregon. 
From  evidence  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  introduce  in  another 
connection,  it  will  appear  that  during  certain  years  of  the  decade, 
the  transit  to  the  north  is  so  great  as  to  leave  Oregon  as  rainless 
as  California.  For  the  present,  the  foregoing  table  is  sufficient 
evidence  of  the  fact,  and  the  extent,  of  the  transit,  and  that  it  is 
in  precise  conformity  with  that  of  the  Atlantic  system  in  the  east- 
ern states,  in  its  material  features. 

In  the  fourth  place,  there  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  winds 
attendant  upon  the  focal  path  are  the  same  as  those  in  the  eastern 
states.  This  is  so  well  expressed  by  Mr.  Blodgett  in  his  Climat- 
ology that  I  copy  from  him. 

"  The  rains  of  this  best  known  portion  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
(California,)  are,  as  has  been  said,  peculiar  in  regard  to  the  at- 
tending winds,  which,  from  San  Diego  to  Puget's  Sound,  are  in 
nearly  all  cases  from  the  southeast  and  south  with  a  strong  and 
steady  force.  These  are  also  simply  attendant  winds,  and  not  those 
which  may  be  said  to  bring  the  rains, — the  course  of  clouds  above 


114 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


the  local  or  surface  wind,  being  quite  regular  from  the  west.  But 
110  sooner  is  precipitation  begun  than  the  attendant  southeast  wind 
sets  in,  to  be  continued  steadily  to  the  end  of  the  rain  in  most 
cases.  And  at  the  northernmost  stations  it  begins  always  earlier 
than  at  the  next  southward, — in  fact  beginning  and  ending  with 
the  rain  in  all  cases,  and  as  they  begin  earlier  at  the  northerly 
points  it  has  more  days  of  duration  there."  As  the  centre  of  the 
focal  path  is  never  south  of  Oregon,  there  are  of  course  none 
other  than  the  southerly  lateral  winds  which  form  a  part  of  the 
conditions  south  of  that  point. 

If  now  we  go  north  of  the  focal  path  to  Sitka,  we  find  the  east- 
erly and  westerly  winds  are  prevalent,  and  that  northerly  winds 
are  prevalent  when  the  focal  path  is  at  the  south.  The  east  wind 
is  not  known  south  of  the  focus.  At  Sitka  it  is  more  prevalent 
than  any  other,  as  the  following  table  of  the  relative  number  of 
winds  taken  from  Prof.  Coffin's  work  will  show : 

WINDS  IN  BRITISH  AND  RUSSIAN  AMERICA. 

SITKA,  RUSSIAN  AMERICA. 


Course. 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 
< 

1 

i 

i-s 

f 

i 

| 

GO 

O 

> 

I 

I 

North..  . 

11 

127 
48 
167 
3 
5 
57 
41 
279 

6 
7 
14 
330 
48 
31 
13 
10 
237 

78 
198 
222 
48 
48 
48 
66 
36 
0 

42 
90 
233 
59 
52 
113 
65 
53 
14 

12 

24 
156 
114 

78 
156 
144 

30 
18 

36 
42 
162 
60 
60 
66 
186 
72 
36 

42 

78 
90 
6 
66 
120 
168 
36 
120 

18 
42 
156 
90 
90 
54 
108 
24 
162 

18 
18 
246 
102 
60 
72 
42 
36 
120 

30 
30 
240 
174 
90 
18 
72 
6 
66 

12   6 

30:  18 
270;  210 
90  204 
30  i  78 
42  36 
72)  48 
24  48 
150  96 

311 
704 
2047 
1444 
703 
42 
1041 
416 
1298 

N  E 

East,  

SB    ... 

South,  

s.w  

West,  

N.W  

Calm 

But  it  should  be  stated  that  all  the  conditions  are  less  intense 
on  that  coast  than  in  the  eastern  states.  Thunder  storms  are  ex- 
ceedingly rare, — thunder  is  not  heard  more  than  two  or  three 
times  a  year  in  California.  Gales  are  uncommon  and  the  condi- 
tions seem  to  partake  of  the  pacific  character  of  the  ocean  on 
which  they  originate.  Why  the  ocean  and  the  conditions  are  thus 
pacific,  I  am  not  yet  at  liberty  to  suggest,  for  I  have  undertaken 
to  unfold  the  system  to  you,  -as  matter  of  fact,  leaving  the  consid- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  115 

eration  of  its  motive  and  controlling  forces  for  a  concluding  chapter. 
I  turn  now  to  the  third  system  of  conditions,  which  in  certain 
years  and  seasons  covers  the  southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  States, 
Southern  Mexico,  and  Central  America.  Here,  as  we  have  said, 
the  conditions  originate  upon  the  Atlantic  or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  pass  to  the  westward  out  upon  the  Pacific.  They  are  not 
directly  connected  with  the  other  two  systems,  and  a  further  con- 
sideration of  them  is  scarcely  necessary.  They  consist  almost 
wholly  of  limited  and  isolated  thunder  showers,  passing  frequently 
and  rapidly  over  the  track,  giving  dashes  of  rain  in  large  drops 
and  pouring  masses  for  a  brief  period,  and  are  gone.  But  the 
aggregate  amount  of  rain  which  they  deposit  during  the  rainy 
season,  even  during  the  brief  period  they  are  over  the  Gulf  coast, 
is  very  large,  as  the  following  table  will  show: 

Fort  Myers,  Florida,  mean  annual  rain,  -  C2.26 

"  "  "  mean  for  summer,  -  30.91 

Fort  Brooke,  Florida,  mean  annual  rain,  -  55.47 

"  "  "  mean  for  summer,  -  -  28.44 

Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana,  annual  mean,  -  -  62.10 

"  "  "  mean  for  summer,  -  19.14 

With  this  table,  which  requires  no  comment,  I  leave  this  branch 
of  the  subject.  The  importance  of  the  foregoing  development  of 
the  systems  of  conditions  and  the  transits  of  their  focal  paths,  can- 
not be  doubted.  Nor  can  the  truth  of  the  development  be  honest- 
ly denied.  There  is  much  other  evidence  to  support  it  for  which 
I  have  not  space.  Some  of  it  will  hereafter  appear  in  another 
connection.  Let  not  the  practical  reader  doubt  the  truth  of  that, 
and  other  developments,  made  and  to  be  made,  because  they  have 
been  in  substance  thirteen  years  before  the  professed  Meteorolo- 
gists of  the  country,  and  have  been  ignored  and  suppressed,  be- 
cause adverse  to  a  baseless  and  pernicious  theory. 

"  Truth  crushed  to  earth  will  rise  again, 

The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers; 
But  error  wounded  writhes  in  pain, 

And  dies  amid  her  worshipers." 


116  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

And  now  if  the  reiser  has  attentively  followed  me  in  the  fore- 
going exposition  of  the  manner  in  which  the  conditions  produce 
the  states  of  the  atmosphere  constituting  the  weather,  the  charac- 
ter of  those  conditions  as  they  enter  upon  or  form  over  our  con- 
tinent, and  their  various  systems  and  the  paths  they  pursue,  he  is 
'prepared  to  follow  me  as  I  trace  them  back  to  their  sources,  and 
examine  the  organization  of  the  GENERAL  SYSTEM,  and  the  opera- 
tion of  the  laws  of  that  system,  by  which  ihe  conditions  are  pro- 
duced. Upon  that  inquiry  we  will  enter  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERIC 
SYSTEM. 

Origin  of  a  class  of  conditions  in  the  central  zone — Central  belt  of  precip- 
itating clouds — encircles  the  earth — Mean  width  about  500  miles — chart 
of  it  and  its  connections — Situation  in  August,  north  of  the  equator — 
Polar  zones  of  rain  connected  with  it — Situation  of  polar  zones  in  August 
— On  each  side  of  the  central  belt  an  area  covered  by  dry  trade-wind,  called 
N.E.  and  S.E.  trades — these  areas  also  surround  the  earth — The  central 
belt  of  cloud  and  rain,  the  two  areas  of  dry  trade- wind,  and  the  two  polar 
zones  of  ra:n,  make  five  permanent  and  connected  parts  of  a  general  sys- 
tem— All  as  a  connected  whole  have  a  northern  and  southern  annual  tran- 
sit— All  commence  their  movement  together  to  the  south  about  the  first  of 
August,  and  reach  their  southern  position  about  the  first  of  February — 
Chart  showing  the  position  in  February  of  the  five  parts,  to  wit :  the  cen- 
tral belt,  the  two  trade-wind  zones,  and  the  two  polar  zones — The  connect- 
•  ed, whole  commences  it&  northern  transit  early  in  February,  and  reaches 
its  northern  position  in  August — This  organized  whole  to  be  particularly 
examined— Some  preliminary  facis  to  be  considered — Transit  more  ex- 
tended north  and  south  some  years  than -others — Some  sections  which  are 
not  covered  by  either  zone  of  rains  during  the  transit — such  sections  con- 
stitute a  class  of  deserts — Such  are  New  Holland  and  Kalahari  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere — Arabia;  Egypt,  Sahara,  Colorado,  &c.,  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere— There  are  also  arid  areas  in  the  polar  zones — Prin- 
cipal rivers  of  Africa  and  ;South  America  rise  under  the  central  belt  of  rains- 
Central  belt  passes  over  some  places  twice  a  year— Monsoons — Examina- 
tion of  the  great  central  condition — Constituted  by  or  composed  of  a  cen- 
tral belt  of  condensation  and  two  wings  of  winds,  the  trades — Analagous 
in  this  respect  to  the  conditions  of  the  polar  zones — Analagous  also  in  all 
its  essential  elements — Critical  examination -of  its  elements— Examination 
of  the  trade-winds  and  their  character— Examination  of  the  central  belt 
o.;  condensation  and  its  character — Contains  no  vortex — Theory  that  it 
does  a  mere  assumption — Originally  made  by  Halley  in  1686 — never 
proved  by  any  direct  evidence,  nor  capable  of  such  proof — Every  fact,  in 
nature  bearing  upon  it  adverse  to  it — Earth,  air  and  water  under  the  belt 
of  rain  colder  than  in  the  trades  everywhere — Fundamental  base  of  the 


113  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

theory  therefore  untrue— Review  of  evidence  on  the  point— Fact  undenia- 
ble, undenied,  yet  not  regarded — Coast  wind  of  California,  not  an  excep- 
tion  That  wind  does  not  reach  the  valleys  which  are  assumed  to  cause  it 

The  air  as  heated  in  the  atmosphere  has  not  the  ascensiv,  force  attrib- 
uted to  it — Review  of  the  evidence  on  this  point — Impossible  therefore  that 
it  should  produce  a  vortex— Description  of  a  violent  West.  India  hurricane 
— Originated  where  the  air  and  water  were  only  84°.  Ascensive  force  of 
unconfmed  air  at  that  temperature  does  not  exceed  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
to  the  square  foot— Utterly  impossible  that  it  should  produce  storms  of 
such  violence,  or  any  storms — All  attempts  to  prove  the  existence  of  such 
a  vortex,  directly  or  analogically,  failures — Review  of  evidence  on  that 
point — Examination  of  the  nature  of  the  central  condition,  as  disclosed  by 
actual  and  positive  observation — Review  of  evidence  on  that  point — Obser- 
vations of  Squier  in  Nicaraugua — Fendler  in  Venezuela — Herndon  in  the 
valley  of  the  Amazon — Gibbon  upon  the  Andes — Livingston  in  South 
Africa — Du  Chaillu  in  Equatorial  Africa — Barth  in  North  Africa — All 
concur  to  prove  the  theory  of  Halley  untrue — Critical  examination  of  the 
belt  continued — Has  an  upper  layer  of  cirrus — a  second  layer  of  stratus 
or  cumulo-stratus,  beneath  them  the  scud  of  the  trade-winds — These  three 
elements  with  the  squalls  and  slant  winds  at  the  surface  constitute  the 
organized  central  belt — Trades  pass  each  other  in  this  belt — Review  of  the 
evidence  of  it  and  of  the  objections  made  to  it — After  passing,  continue  in 
the  same  general  direction — Facts  pointing  in  a  different  direction  are  ex- 
ceptions— Review  of  evidence  on  this  point — Resume  of  the  facts  contained 
in  the  chapter. 

Taking  now  one  of  the  distinct  and  intense  conditions  whose 
path  is  along  our  coast,  in  the  early  part  of  August,  and  follow- 
ing it  back  to  the  place  of  its  organization,  as  shown  upon  the 
map  of  Mr.  Redfield ;  or  taking  an  intense  belt  of  showers  which 
has  come  to  us  from  the  westward,  and  tracing  it  back  on  its  curv- 
ing path  to  where  it  entered  upon  the  continent  over  Western 
Texas,  and  thence  to  the  south  and  southeast  to  its  place  of  origin 
in  the  West  Indies  or  the  Caribbean  Sea,  we  find  that  place  to  be 
covered  by  a  belt  or  zone  of  precipitating  clouds,  averaging  about 
500  miles  in  width  and  encircling  the  earth.  That  belt  or  zone 
is  the  centre  of  the  atmospheric  system,  the  Atmospheric  Equa- 
tor. Always  existent,  always  active,  and  permanent. 

Taking  a  general  view  of  it  and  its  connections,  we  find  order, 
arrangement,  and  organization.  The  following  diagram  shows  that 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


119 


central  belt  or  zone  of  rain,  substantially  as  it  is  found  in  normal 
years  on  the  1st  of  August,  and  its  c  nmected  polar  zones. 

FIG.  33. 


You  see  that  it  is  situated  above  the  geographical  equator,  on 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Atlantic,  ranging  up  on  to  Florida  and 
the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf  states,  and  on  to  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, Central  America,  and  Southern  Mexico.  This  is  the  belt  to 
which  I  alluded  as  the  path  of  our  third  system  of  conditions. 
It  is  generally  felt  in  July  and  August  on  the  peninsula  of  Flor- 


120 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM, 


ida,  and  more  or  less  on  the  Atlantic  coast  as  high  as  Charleston, 
but  not  as  high  on  the  Gulf  coast  except  in  occasional  years  in 

FIG.  32. 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  121 

particular  parts  of  each  decade.  The  shading  on  the  diagrnm 
represents  it  with  substantial  accuracy. 

Connected  with  this  central  belt  of  rains  on  the  north,  there  is 
a  polar  zone  of  rains,  exhibited  by  the  shading  of  the  map.  In 
looking  at  it  you  will  see  that  that  polar  zone  of  rains  has  moved 
far  to  the  north  in  August,  uncovering  the  southern  part  of  Spain 
and  Italy  on  the  east,  and  California  and  Oregon  on  the  west. 
Another  view  of  its  situation,  not  quite  as  accurate,  but  sufficiently 
so  for  our  present  purpose,  is  exhibited  upon  the  preceding  dia- 
gram, and  will  show  its  situation  also  upon  Africa  and  Asia. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  shading  that  upon  the  S.E.  part  of  the 
North  American  continent,  and  the  S.E.  part  of  the  continent  of 
Asia,  the  zones  are  represented  as  connected.  Casting  your  eye 
upon  the  southern  part  of  the  first  diagram,  you  will  see  another 
zone  of  rains,  termed  the  south  polar  zone,  which  about  the  1st  of 
August,  extends  north,  particularly  upon  South  America,  almost  to 
the  Equator.  These  zones  on  the  north  and  in  the  south  are  of 
precisely  the  same  character,  having  similar  atmospheric  conditions 
to  which  they  owe  their  rains,  those  conditions  curving  in  the 
south  polar  zone  to  the  S.E.,  instead  of  the  N.E.,  but  in  both 
drifting  to  the  eastward,  and  furnishing  both  alike  with  rain.  You 
must  remember  that  the  shading  in  all  the  zones  is  only  to  show 
the  territory  upon  which  the  distinct  and  separate  conditions  drop 
their  rain  during  a  given  period.  It  is  not  intended  to  represent 
that  it  is  constantly  raining  upon  those  portions  of  the  earth. 
Intermediate  between  the  central  zone  of  rains  and  each  of  the 
polar  zones,  there  are  two  belts  of  drouth,  and  constant  wind 
blowin^  toward  the  central  zone  of  rain.  These  winds  are  called 

O 

the  trade  winds,  and  as  they  blow  most  frequently  from  the  N.E. 
em  the  north  side,  and  the  S.E.  on  the  south  side,  as  indicated  by 
the  arrows,  they  are  known  as  the  N.E.  and  S.E.  trades.  The 
dry  belt  on  the  south,  with  its  S.E.  trades,  surrounds  the  earth, 
unbroken  except  as  it  is  crossed  by  an  occasional  storm.  The 
dry  belt  on  the  -N.  side,  with  its  N.E.  trades,  also  surrounds  the 
earth  unbroke-n  save  by  an  occasional  storm,  and  save  also  as  the 
central  zone  is  connected  with  the  north  polar  zone  on  Southeast- 


122 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


ern  America  and  Southeastern  Asia.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  central  zone  of  rains  does  not  extend  over  Africa  upon  the 
Desert  of  Sahara,  nor  does  it  extend  on  to  Northern  Mexico  or 
Southern  California.  Thus  then,  on  the  1st  of  August,  in  each 
year,  we  have  these  five  parts  of  a  permanent,  atmospheric  ar- 
rangement. Three  zones  of  clouds  and  precipitation,  and  two  of 
drouth  and  constant  wind,  and  the  five  embracing  the  whole  at- 
mosphere, and  each  in  its  appropriate  place,  encircling  the  earth. 

FIG.  34 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  123 

About  the  first  of  August,  every  year,  these  five  belts  commence 
as  a  connected  whole,  a  movement  to  the  south.  The  northern 
edge  of  the  south  polar  zone  of  rains  descends  to  the  south 
towards  its  pole,  the  zone  of  S.E.  trades  and  drouths,  the  central 
belt  or  zone  of  rains,  and  the  belt  of  N.E.  trades  and  drouths,  all 
three  descend  also,  and  so  does  the  southern  edge  of  the  north 
polar  zone  of  rains.  All  together  and  all  as  one,  they  thus  con^ 
tirme  to  descend  until  about  the  1st  of  February,  when  they  reach 
substantially  the  position  shown  in  the  preceding  diagram. 

Strictly  speaking,  (for  in  an  investigation  of  this  kind  we  must 
nim  to  be  accurate,)  the  northern  edge  of  the  south  polar  zone 
lias  not,  as  a  permanent  edge,  retreated  to  the  south  ;  nor  has  the 
southern  edge  of  the  north  polar  zone,  as  a  permanent  edge,  ex- 
tended to  the  south  ;  but  the  central  zone  of  rain,  the  prima  mobile 
and  causa  causans  of  all,  the  central  organized  body,  has  moved 
down,  carrying  with  it  its  wings  of  wind,  withdrawing  its  north 
wind  from  the  north  polar  zone,  and  permitting  the  northern  con- 
ditions, its  creations,  to  commence  curving  and  precipitating  further 
to  the  southward.  So  it  has  moved  its  southern  wing  gradually 
farther  and  farther  down,  causing  its  S.E.  dry  winds  to  commence 
blowing  still  farther  and  farther  fiom  the  southward,  and  compel- 
ing  the  southerly  conditions  of  its  creation  to  commence  curving 
and  precipitating  farther  and  farther  to  the  southward  until  its  an- 
nual southern  limit  was  reached. 

Generally  by  the  middle  of  February,  in  some  particular  year 
of  the  decade  a  little  earlier,  and  in  others  still  later,  the  central 
belt  of  precipitation,  with  its  wings  of  winds  and  connections,  fol- 
lowing the  sun,  commences  its  northern  transit.  The  ascent  to 
the  north  is  but  a  counterpart  of  the  descent  to  the  south.  As 
the  S.E.  trades  cease  to  blow  at  their  extreme  limits,  the  southern 
conditions  commence  curving  and  precipitating  farther  and  farther 
north  upon  the  surface  from  which  they  had  been  excluded  by 
the  trades  and  drouth,  or  to  speak  more  correctly,  by  the  influence 
which  caused  the  trades.  So,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  central 
belt  moves  to  the  north,  the  N.E.  trades  commence  blowing  far- 
ther and  farther  from  the  north,  compelling  the  northern  condi- 


124  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

lions  to  commence  curving  and  precipitating  still  further  and  fur- 
ther northward.  And  so  the  process  goes  on,  until  about  the  1st 
of  August,  the  central  belt  and  the  belts  of  trade  and  drouth,  and 
the  edges  of  the  polar  zones,  reach  the  positions  in  which  we 
found  them  on  the  first  of  August  before. 

Before  we  examine  critically  the  character  of  the  organization 
of  which  we  have  thus  taken  a  general  view,  it  will  be  well  to 
look  at  a  few  facts,  which  will  be  useful  in  a  critical  inquiry. 
The  first  is,  that  although  the  transit  of  the  central  belt  of  rains 
is  substantially  the  same  every  year,  at  intervals  of  10  or  11  years, 
its  transit  both  north  and  south  is  perceptibly  extended  ;  and  there 
is  irregularity  and  periodicity  connected  with  it,  which  we  shall 
see  has  an  important  influence  on  the  weather  of  our  zone. 

Another  fact  is,  that  over  extensive  portions  of  the  earth  in  the 
dry  belt  covered  by  the  trade-winds,  the  central  zone  of  rain  and 
the  polar  zones  of  rain  do  not  lap,  so  to  speak,  during  the  transits, 
and  such  portions  are  rainless  deserts.  Thus  upon  New  Holland, 
under  _the  southern  belt  of  trade,  the  central  zone  of  rains,  in  its 
transit  to  the  south,  covers  a  part,  but  only  a  small  part  of  it  on 
the  north.  And  so,  in  its  movement  to  the  north,  the  south  polar 
zone  of  rains  moves  far  enough  north  to  cover  a  part  only  on  the 
south,  leaving  an  intervening,  extensive,  rainless,  central  desert 
not  reached  by  either.  Following  the  same  belt  of  trade  to  the 
west,  we  find  a  desert,  though  not  as  perfectly  arid  in  South 
Africa — that  of  Kalahari.  On  the  diagram  I  have  marked  the 
extent  to  which  the  south  polar  zone  of  rain  extends  up  beyond 
Orange  river,  during  its  northern  transit,  in  normal  years,  and 
also,  by  a  dotted  line,  the  extent  to  which  the  central  belt  of  rains 
in  such  seasons  reaches  in  its  southern  transit.  The  space  which 
is  not  covered  by  either,  is  the  Kalahari  Desert,  so  fully  described 
to  us  by  Livingstone.  One  fact  may  here  be  noted,  mentioned  by 
Livingstone,  viz. :  that  occasionally  the  central  zone  of  rains  does 
extend  down  far  enough  to  cover  the  desert,  and  that  it  is  a  tradi- 
tion among  the  natives  that  this  occurs  once  in  10  or  11  years. 
We  shall  advert  to  it  again  when  we  come  to  consider  the  occasional 
extreme  transits  to  which  we  have  alluded.  Going  west  to 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  125 

South  America,  south  of  the-  equator,  we  find  that  the  central 
and  south  polar  zones  of  rains  do  lap,  though  imperfectly,  and 
there  is  no  place  which  is  not  reached  by  either  of  them,  and  no 
absolutely  rainless  desert.  South  America  is  peculiarly  situated 
for  the  reception  of  moisture  from  the  trades,  and  peculiarly  ele- 
vated, and  is  therefore  more  abundantly  supplied  with  moisture 
than  any  other  territory  south  of  the  Equator.  If  the  country 
was  flat,  and  its  supply  of  an  ordinary  character,  the  imperfectly 
watered  Salinas  and  Pampas  would  be  rainless  deserts. 

There  is  no  other  continent  covered  by  the  S.E.  trades,  where, 
for  the  rear  on  stated,  a  desert  can  exist.  The  desert  of  Peru  is 
partly  owing  to  the  cause  mentioned,  and  in  part  also,  to  the  bar- 
rier which  the  Andes  present  against  the  passage  of  either  the 
upper  or  lower  trades  over  it. 

Coming  now  to  the  belt  of  N.K  trades,  we  find  under  it  exten- 
sive tracts  of  rainless  desert.  The  central  zone  of  rains,  and  the 
north  polar  zone  of  rains,  connect  together,  as  represented  on  the 
diagram,  on  Southeastern  Asia,  as  they '  do  upon  Southeastern 
North  America.  Commencing  now  at  the  western  edge  of  that 
connection  on  Northwestern  Hindostan,  and  going  west,  we  find 
an  unbroken  rainless  desert  reaching  through  Beloochistan,  Afghan- 
istan, Arabia,  and  Egypt,  and  across  northern  Africa  to  the  Atlan- 
tic. The  north  polar  zone  of  rains  reaches  down,  for  a  few  weeks 
in  winter,  on  to  the  northern  part  of  Egypt,  and  upon  the  Barbafy 
States,  but  the  central  portion  of  that  entire  and  extensive  desert 
has  no  rain,  except  now  and  then  an  occasional  brief  shower. 
Except  upon  Southeastern  Asia  and  Southeastern  North  Amer- 
ica, the  central  zone  of  rains  does  not  often  extend  north  of  20°, 
nor  the  polar  zone  of  rains  south  of  25°. 

Coming  to  this  continent,  the  belt  of  deserts  is  broken  on  the 
eastern  part,  by  the  extension  of  the  central  belt  of  rain  up  to 
30°,  but  the  line  of  desert  appears  again  oh  Northern  Mexico,  and 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Gila  and  Colorado.  Thus  you  may  under- 
stand that  there  is  a  general  law  of  the  atmospheric  system  which 
produces  the  great  central  deserts  of  the  earth,  and  that  it  is  the 
law  which  regulates  the  transits  of  the  zones  of  rains. 


126  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

There  is  another  important  fact  to  be  noticed  here,  bearing  upon 
future  inquiry.  In  "Western  Asia,  westward  of  its  system  of 
Pacific  conditions,  and  northward  of  the  belt  of  trade-wind  desert 
which  I  have  described,  there  is  an  extensive  tract  of  country,  in- 
cluding Beloochistan,  Afghanistan,  Persia,  the  Punjaub,  Northwest- 
ern India,  Toorkistan  and  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire and  Desert  of  Gobi,  that  receives  but  little  rain,  and  is  compara- 
tively infertile,  and  very  much  of  it  desert.  To  what  is  it  owing  ? 
Directly  south  lies  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  over  that  for  20°  or  more, 
in  summer,  the  central  belt  of  rain  is  situated.  Why  should  not  the 
equatorial  current  in  its  assumed  uprising  and  overflowing,  flow 
from  that  over  on  to  this  vast  arid  country  ?  And  if  not  in  summer 
then  why  not  in  winter,  when  that  central  belt  lies  over  the  Indian 
Ocean,  an  extent  of  more  than  50°  ?  There  are  the  facts,  what 
is  the  explanation  ?  We  shall  find  it  in  the  law  of  the  system 
which  carries  up  the  central  belt  to  meet  the  polar  zone  of  rain 
upon  Southeastern  Asia,  and  establishes  limits  for  the  paths  of  the 
conditions,  which  no  "heating  of  the  land"  ever  disturbs  or 
affects. 

Again,  upon  the  southwestern  portion  of  this  continent  we 
have  a  similar  state  of  things.  Between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
systems  of  conditions  we  have  the  arid  areas  before  described, 
of  Southern  California,  Northern  Mexico,  the  Deserts  of  the 
Gila  and -Colorado  and  the  Stakey  plain,  and  Utah,  while  upon 
the  south  of  them  lie  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
the  Pacific,  on  which  the  equatorial  belt  of  rains  rests  in  summer 
and  f.  om  whose  "  overflow"  if  there  was  such,  as  assumed  by  Sir 
John  Tyndall  and  Prof.  Henry,  they  too  might  be  watered. 
Again,  over  all  central  and  eastern  Hindostan,  even  where  the 
central  belt  of  rains  passes  up  over  it  in  the  spring,  it  precipitates 
but  very  little,  but  on  the  western  coast  and  over  the  Ghauts  the 
rain  falls  in  large  quantities,  while  east  of  them  the  country  is 
dry.  But  when  the  central  belt  returns  from  its  transit  to  the 
north,  in  the  fall,  it  supplies  central  and  eastern  Hindostan  abun- 
dantly with  rain.  Why,  over  that  great  country  should  it  precip- 
itate during  its  transit  to  the  north,  on  the  west  coast  and  not  on 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  127 

the  east  coast  and  in  the  interior,  if  precipitation  depends  simply 
on  overflow  ?  And  why,  in  its  transit  to  the  south,  should  it 
precipitate  on  the  east  coast  and  in  the  interior  and  not  on  the 
west  coast  ?  The  questions  cannot  be  answered  by  alleging  a 
vortex  and  overflow,  but  there  is  a  satisfactory  explanation  for  all 
these  apparent  anomalies  which  will  appear  hei  eafter.  I  cannot 
now  give  it  without  anticipating. 

There  is  another  matter  which  it  may  be  well  to  glance  at,  as 
a  matter  of  interest,  rather  than  as  furnishing  important  evidence 
in  our  inquiry,  viz. :  The  manner  in  which  all  the  great  rivers  in 
Africa  and  South  America  originate  in  the  track  of  the  central 
belt  of  rains.  Thus,  the  immense  river  system  of  South  America 
is  fed  mainly  by  that  central  belt.  On  the  south  is  a  system 
which  has  its  trunk  in  the  La  Plata,  and  whose  branches  are  the 
Uruguay,  Paraguay,  the  Parana,  and  its  affluents  the  Salado 
the  Vermejo,  and  the  Pilcomayo,  and  all  rise  to  the  noithward, 
supplied  by  the  central  belt  of  rains.  So  is  the  vast  system  of 
the  Amazon  supplied  by  the  same  belt.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
Orinoco  and  its  tributaries,  and  of  all  Northern  South  America. 

Turning  to  Africa,  we  find  all  its  great  rivers  rising  in  the 
centre  of  the  continent,  fed  by  the  central  belt  of  rains,  and  run- 
ning northward  or  southward  to  the  sea.  Thus  the  Niger  on  the 
west,  rising  in  the  western  part  of  Soudan,  on  the  north  side  of 
mountains,  curves  northward  and  eastward  to  Timbuctoo,  and 
thence  running  to  the  southward,  receives  the  Benuwe  and  other 
small  affluents,  and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  So  the  Nile,  ris- 
ing near  the  equator,  fed  by  the  central  belt  of  rains,  runs  north 
through  more  than  30°  of  latitude,  and  much  of  the  way  through 
a  sterile  country,  emptying  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  And  so 
of  the  Zambesi,  and  the  Kingami,  which  flow  southeasterly  into 
the  Indian  Ocean.  There  are  a  few  inconsiderable  streams  enter- 
ing the  Atlantic  on  the  northwest,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
north,  which  derive  their  water  from  the  north  polar  zone  of  rains. 
And  the*-e  is  one  considerable  stream,  the  Orange  river,  which 
drains  extreme  South  Africa  of  water  supplied  by  the  south  polar 
zone  of  rains,  during  its  extension  to  the  north. 


128  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

There  is  still  another  feature  _of  this  general  system  which  it  is 
important  to  notice.  In  its  transit  north  and  south  over  South 
America,  Africa,  and  Hindostan,  there  are  central  portions  over 
which  it  passes  twice  each  year.  When  it  is  at  the  north  of  such 
a  place  the  winds  are  southerly,  and  when  south  of  it  they  are 
northerly.  This  change  in  the  direction  of  wind  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year  gave  rise  originally  to  the  term  Monsoons, 
but  it  is  obvious  that  they  are  not  a  distinct  system  of  winds. 
They  are  simply  trade-winds.  There  is  a  different  class  of 
winds,  which  I  have  represented  upon  the  diagrams  to  which 
I  have  applied  the  term  monsoons,  although  it  is  not  very  des- 
criptive of  them.  I  allude  to  a  class  of  winds — eddies,  perhaps 
they  may  be  called — which  blow  in  under  the  central  belt  of 
rains,  on  the  western  coasts  of  the  continents  and  islands  where 
that  coast  is  elevated,  but  not  too  elevated.  Such  winds  are 
found  on  the  west  coast  of  Hindostan,  blowing  from  the  S.W.  in 
upon  the  Ghauts ;  and  again  upon  Senegambia  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa ;  and  still  again  on  central  America,  and  the  northwest- 
ern coast  of  South  America.  The  same  thing  is  measurably  true 
of  Burmah  and  Siam,  and  the  western  coast  of  Madagascar. 
These  are  deflected  S.  E.  trades.  Of  the  force  which  deflects  them, 
I  cannot  yet  speak  without  anticipating. 

Having  thus  taken  a  general  view  of  the  organization  of  the 
general  system,  as  a  connected  whole,  let  us  now  attempt  a  close 
and  careful  analysis  of  its  path  and  character, — commencing  with 
the  great  permanent  central  condition,  consisting  of  the  central 
belt  of  rains  and  its  wings,  the  trades.  In  this  inquiry  we  omit 
all  notice  of  the  polar  zones  of  rains  and  variable  winds.  We 
have  already  examined  their  character,  and  find  that  they  are 
constituted  by  conditions  which  are  originated  and  controlled 
directly  or  indirectly  by  the  cause  or  force  which  organizes  and 
sustains  the  central  belt  and  its  wings,  the  trades.  Our  inquiry 
then  narrows  to  the  organization  of  that  belt  and  its  trades. 

One  thought  may  perhaps  already  have  entered  your  minds. 
On  a  general  view,  that  arrangement  of  clouds  and  winds  consti- 
tuting the  great  central  condition,  seems  to  resemble  precisely  the 
arrangement  of  clouds  and  winds  which  constitute  our  intense 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  129 

a:.d  distinct  summer  conditions  or  belts  of  showers,  and  we  shall 
find,  upon  analyzing  it,  that  all  its  elements  are  precisely  like  those 
of  the  condition  that  I  have  described  as  having  passed  unre- 
garded, and  unnoticed,  over  the  heads  of  the  assembled  and  asso- 
ciated scientists  of  the  country,  at  Springfield,  in  August,  1859. 

If  now  you  cut  out  a  section  of  the  central  belt  and  its  winds, 
from  Africa  to  South  America,  as  represented  upon  the  diagram, 
or  make  afac  simile  of  it,  and  slide  it  endwise  to  the  northwest 
to  the  latitude  of  30°,  and  there  curve  it  gradually  so  as  to  give 
it  a  northeast  direction  at  the  parallel  of  35°,  and  then  as  you  pass 
it  up  to  the  northeastward,  give  it  a  sliding  drift  to  the  east,  you 
will  have  the  appearance  and  apparent  character  and  movement 
of  an  intense  belt  of  summer  showers.  And  in  fact  they  are,  as 
we  shall  see,  precisely  alike  in  their  essential  elements.  But  to 
the  evidence. 

Passing  from  that  general  appearance  and  similarity,  we  find 
in  its  composition  the  following  state  of  things.  The  trade-winds 
which  blow  into  it,  or  are  drawn  into  it  on  the  north  side,  vary 
considerably  in  width.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the 
northern  limit  of  the  central  belt  of  rains  ranges  in  summer  from 
12°  to  15°  N.  Lat.,  and  the  northern  limit  of  the  N.E.  trades 
ranges  from  32°  to  35°,  both  varying  in  different  years.  On 
the  western  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  northern  limit  of  the  central 
belt  is  carried  much  higher,  curving  to  the  northwest,  passing 
north  of  the  Antilles  and  Windward  Isles.  The  breadth  of  the 
N.E.  trade  is  therefore  much  less  on  the  western  than  on  the  east- 
ern side.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic  the  breadth  is  there- 
fore -about  20°,  and  substantially  uniform.  On  the  west  the 
breadth  is  much  diminished,  the  S.E.  trades  being  very  strong, 
blowing  across  the  central  belt  and  following  it  up  on  to  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  United  States. 

The  S.E.  trades  all  round  the  world,  are  stronger  and  cover  a 
larger  area  than  the  N.E.  They  are  often  found  on  the  South 
Atlantic  and  South  Pacific  as  low  down  as  37°,  when  the  south- 
ern limit  of  the  belt  of  rains  is  not  much  south  of  the  equator. 
They  must  therefore  sometimes  have  a  breadth  of  more  than  30°, 
7 


130  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

especially  when  they  blow  across  the  equator  up  over  the  West 
India  Islands  even  to  Florida. 

What  is  the  character  of  these  winds  ?  I  have  not  been  in 
.them  and  cannot  speak  from  my  own  knowledge.  But  I  have 
taken  great  pains  to  ascertain  that  character,  by  reading  and  in- 
quiry. They  are  substantially  constant,  blowing  night  and  day. 
They  are  attended  by  their  scud,  like  the  winds  which  blow  into 
our  summer  belts  of  showers.  These  scud  frequently  enlarge  and 
make  dashing  showers,  and  sometimes  gusts,  constituting  what 
the  sailors  term  "  white  squalls."  Coalescing  and  gathering  to- 
gether in  large  masses,  they  make  the  cumulo-stratus  and  heavy 
thunder  showers,  and  in  larger  masses  still  the  hurricanes  of  the 
surface.  From  all  I  can  leam  of  them,  from  the  treatises  of  me- 
teorologists and  the  logs  of  navigators,  they  differ  in  no  essential 
respect  from  the  lateral  storm  winds  of  our  distinct  conditions. 
What  then  is  the  character  of  this  cloud  belt  ?  Beneath  are  the 
scud  and  showers  and  squalls  of  the  trade-winds  and  over  all  a 
layer  constituted  of  cirrus  and  cirro  stratus,  precisely  as  over  the 
precipitating  cumulo-strati  of  our  belts  of  showers  and  of  the  ex- 
tensive stratus  of  our  less  intense  southeasters.  To  the  evidence 
of  all  this  I  will  advert  hereafter. 

This  statement  is  adverse  to  the  prevailing  assumption  in  rela- 
tion to  this  cloud-belt,  inasmuch  as  it  is  adverse  to  the  idea  that 
there  is  an  ascending  vortex  there,  which  creates  the  belt  and  produces 
the  trade- winds,  and  we  must  inquire  into  the  evidence  on  which 
it  is  rested  and  dispose  of  it.  Whether  there  is  a  vortex  in  its  com- 
position or  structure  is  a  matter  of  fa-t  and  pertinent  and  impor- 
tant here. 

What  then  is  the  prevailing  assumption  and  theory  ?  It  is 
thus  concisely  stated  by  Sir  John  Tyndall  in  his  treatise  on  "Heat, 
as  a  mode  of  motion,"  as  late  as  18G3.  "  From  the  heat  of  the 
sun  our  winds  are  all  derived.  We  live  at  the  bottom  of  an 
aerial  ocean,  which  is  to  a  remarkable  decree  permeable  to  the 
sun's  rays,  and  is  but  little  disturbed  by  their  direct  action.  But 
those  rays,  when  they  fall  upon  the  earth,  heat  its  surface  ;  the 
air  in  contact  with  the  surface  shares  its  heat,  is  expanded  and 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  131 

• 

ascends  into  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  Where  the 
rays  fall  vertically  on  the  earth,  the  heating  of  the  surface  is 
greatest,  that  is  to  say,  between  the  tropics.  Here  aerial  currents 
ascend  and  flow  laterally  north  and  south  toward  the  poles,  the 
heavier  air  of  the  polar  regions  streaming  in  to  supply  the  place 
vacated  by  the  light  and  warm  air.  Thus  we  have  an  incessant 
circulation.  Yesterday  I  made  the  following  experiment  in  the 
hot  room  of  a  Turkish  bath.  I  opened  wide  the  door  and  held  a 
lighted  taper  in  the  doorway,  midway  between  top  and  bottom. 
The  flame  rose  straight  from  the  taper.  I  placed  the  taper  at  the 
bottom  and  it  was  blown  violently  inward ;  I  placed  it  at  the  top, 
it  was  blown  violently  outward.  Here  we  had  two  currents  or 
winds,  sliding  over  each  other  in  opposite  directions.  Tims,  also, 
as  regards  our  hemisphere,  we  have  a  current  from  the  equator 
setting  in  toward  the  north  and  flowing  in  the  higher  regions  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  another  flowing  toward  the  equator,  in  the 
lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  These  are  the  upper  and  the 
lower  Trade  Winds."  The  same  theory,  in  substantially  similar 
terms,  was  promulgated  by  Prof.  Henry,  in  his  patent  office  compil- 
ations, and  his  Springfield  lecture. 

This  is  but  a  repetiiion  of  an  assumption,  and  a  mere  assump- 
tion, made  by  Halley  in  1686,  nearly  two  centuries  ago.  The 
assumption  seemed  plausible  then,  for  little  was  known  of  the 
atmosphere,  there  were  none  to  question  it,  and  it  has  been  handed 
down,  like  a  tradition,  from  that  time  to  this  ;  and  he  has  been  the 
most  distinguished  meteorologist  who  could  discover,  or  group, 
or  assume  the  most  facts  to  sustain  it,  or  invent  the  most  plausible 
assumption  or  incidental  theory  to  reconcile  inconsistent  and  indis- 
putable facts  as  they  have  been  constantly  brought  to  light  by  the 
progress  of  knowledge.  I  stated,  and  I  think  demonstrated  sat- 
isfactorily to  the  minds  of  all  intelligent  readers  not  committed  to 
the  theory  of  Halley,  by  essays  or  lectures,  in  the  "  Philosophy 
of  the  Weather,"  published  in  1856,  that  the  assumption  was  un- 
supported by  evidence,  and  was  a  fallacy.  And  now  after  13  years 
more  of  continued  and  careful  investigation,  with  the  fullest  con- 
viction of  which  my  mind  is  capable,  I  reassert  that  the  theory  in 


132 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


its  fundamental  and  auxiliary  assumptions — is  baseless  as    the" 
fabric  of  a  vision.     THERE  is  NOT  A  FACT  IN  NATURE,  RIGHTLY 

UNDERSTOOD,    WHICH  IS    NOT  OPPOSED    TO  IT.       And    I    also    ill- 

clude  the  modification  involved  in  the  Espyan  theory. 

Now  in  the  first  place,  there  is  not  a  spot  upon  the  land,  covered 
at  any  season  by  the  central  belt  of  rains,  which  is  hotter  than  the 
dry  surface  on  either  side  of  it,  from  which  the  trade-winds  blow 
into  it.  Let  us  test  this. 

Commencing  on  the  west  coast  of  Hindostan,  we  find  from  a 
table  prepared  by  Kaemtz,  and  taken  from  his  treatise  on  Meteor- 
ology, that  at  Anjarakandy,  between  12°  and  13°  N.  Lat.,  the 
thermometer  rises  during  the  month  of  April,  and  while  the  belt 
of  rains  is  south  of  it,  to  a  mean  of  29°  8'  Centigrade,  and  85° 
Fahrenheit.  As  the  belt  of  rains  moves  north  and  covers  it,  it  falls 
rapidly  although  the  sun  is  vertical,  until  July,  when  it  is  but  25° 
8'  Centigrade  and  77°  Fahrenheit.  From  this  it  rises  again  so  that 
in  November,  after  the  belt  of  rains  has  receded  to  the  south,  it 
reaches  26°  9'  Centigrade  and  80°  Fahrenheit. 

I  give  the  tab'e  of  Kaemtz,  with  the  rain-fall,  to  show  the  sit- 
uation in  the  respective  mon:hs,  of  the  belt  of  rains. 


Temp'ture 
Fahrenheit. 

Rain  in  inches 

January    .                                                     

79 

00 

February,  

81 

00 

March,  

83 

00 

April,  .      .            

85 

1.00 

Mav,  

83 

6.00 

.June,  .         

79 

31.00 

July,  

77 

31.00 

August,  

79 

22.00 

September  

79 

12.00 

October,  

80 

6.00 

November,  ...                                                    .... 

80 

2.00 

December,  

79 

1.00 

Fractions  of  degrees  of  temperature  and  inches  of  rain  are  omitted. 

Between  April,  when  the  belt  is  not  over  Anjarakandy,  and 
July,  when  its  centre  is  over  it,  and  the  sun  also  is  vertical  or  nearly 
so, -there  is  a  difference  of  8  degrees.  In  India  then,  on  either 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  133 

side  of  the  belt  of  rains,  the  surface  from  which  the  trades  are 
blowing,  is  hotter,  materially,  than  the  surface  and  the  air  under 
the  belt  of  rains  to  which  they  blow. 

Passing  now  to  Northern  Africa,  we  find  from  the  observations 
of  Dr.  Barth,  at  Kukuwa,  in  latitude  12°,  that  in  April  and  May 
and  early  June,  the  thermometer  ranges  during  one  half  of  the 
days  above  100°  while  in  August,  when  the  central  belt  has 
reached  up  over  the  place,  and  the  sun  is  vertical,  the  thermom- 
eter rose  above  90°  on  two  recorded  days  only.  We  also  find 
that  in  October,  after  the  rains  had  retreated  to  the  southward,  the 
thermometer  again  rose  on  a  majority  of  days,  and  indeed  upon 
every  day  but  two,  above  100°.  The  mean  difference  in  Soudan, 
according  to  the  observations  of  Dr.  Barth,  between  May  and 
October,  when  the  sun  was  not  vertical,  and  the  earth  was  not 
covered  by  the  belt  of  rains,  and  July  and  August,  when  the  sun 
was  vertical  and  the  rains  were  over  it,  is  at  least  15°. 

Passing  now  to  the  North  Atlantic,  we  find  that  in  summer, 
when  the  northern  limit  of  the  belt  of  rains  is  14°  North  in  Aug- 
ust, the  mean  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  for  5°  north  of  it  is 
at  least  2°  higher.  This  is  shown  by  the  tables  of  Dove  and  so 
many  others  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  insert  any  evidence  of  it. 
At  this  place  let  me  introduce  a  reduced  map  of.the  trade-winds 
prepared  by  Prof.  Coffin,  and  published  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

It  is  a  correct  reduction,  but  as  a  representation  of  the  trade- 
winds,  it  is  imperfect.  It  represents  their  mean  location  for  the 
year  merely. 

But  it  also  represents  an  indisputable  fact  which  the  false  as- 
sumption we  are  considering  cannot  explain  or  obscure,  having, 
as  I  think,  a  conclusive  bearing  on  the  question  in  hand.  It 
shows  that  from  600  miles  of  flat  coast,  adjoining  the  great  Desert 
of  Sahara,  on  which  the  sand  is  heated  every  day  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  130°  to  160°  Fahrenheit,  and  where  the  same  ther- 
mometer stands  in  the  shade  during  the  summer  months  as  high  as 
112°,  the  wind  draws  off  to  the  S.W.,  on  to  a  surface  and  into  a°belt 
of  rain,  where  the  water  never  rises  above  82°  or  the  air  above  84°. 


134 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

FlG.    35. 
WINDS     OFF    THE    COAST    OF  AFRICA 


\ 


\ 


In  this  connection  I  also  introduce  the  following  tables  from 
Prof.  Coffin's  "Winds  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,"  showing  the 
direction  of  the  winds  in  summer  along  the  coast  of  North  Africa, 
below  and  opposite  Sahara. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  135 

LATITUDE  0°  TO  5"1,  LONGITUDE  FROM  GREENWICH  10°  TO  55°. 


Course. 

July. 

August. 

Course. 

July. 

August. 

North. 

0 

0 

S.S.W. 

54 

Ill 

N.N.E. 

8 

2 

S.W. 

1 

29 

N.E. 

6 

2 

W.S.W. 

6 

19 

E.N.E. 

27 

16 

West. 

2 

9 

East. 

31 

20 

W.N.W. 

1 

6 

E.S.E. 

120 

96 

N.W. 

1 

0 

S.E. 

216 

276 

N.N.W. 

0 

2 

S.S.E. 

218 

443 

Calm. 

8 

4 

South. 

69 

279 

Total, 

768 

1,314 

Here  it  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  table  that  the  S.E.  trades 
are  the  prevailing  winds,  but  their  course  is  variable  at  that  point 
south  of  the  rains. 

Ascending  to  the  region  between  5°  and  10°  north  latitude,  and 
10°  to  55°  west  longitude,  the  northern  part  of  which  at  this  sea- 
son is  covered  by  the  rains,  we  find  by  the  following  table  the 
monsoon,  the  S.,  S.S.W.,  and  S.W.  winds,  the  prevailing  ones  in 
August,  although  the  winds  are  variable,  as  usual  under  the  rainy 
belt. 


Course. 

July. 

August. 

Course. 

July. 

August. 

North. 

19 

6 

S.SW. 

188 

368 

N.N.E. 

26 

11 

S.W. 

63 

94 

N.E. 

104 

32 

W.S.W. 

73 

93 

E.N.E. 

30 

16 

West. 

33 

48 

East. 

45 

29 

W.N.W. 

30 

18 

E.S.E. 

36 

40 

N.W. 

21 

9 

S.E. 

93 

53 

N.N.W. 

17 

13 

S.S.E. 

225 

307 

Calm. 

109 

74 

South. 

239 

514 

Total, 

1,351 

1,725 

Ascending  to  the  region  of  10°  to  15°  north  latitude,  and  15° 
to  45°  west  longitude,  still  along  the  coast,  we  find  the  winds,  as 
shown  in  the  following  table,  exceedingly  variable,  and  the  mon- 
soons diminished  remarkably.  If  Professor  Coffin's  theory  was 


136 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


correct,  they  should  increase  as  they  approach  the  desert;  but 
they  in  fact  diminish,  and  the  N.E.  trades  are  found  at  the  north 
portion.  The  peculiar  variable  character  of  the  trade,  under  the 
rains  on  the  west  coasts  of  Africa  and  South  America,  has  been 
much  commented  on  by  seamen.  They  call  the  location  "  the 
doldrums. ' 


Course, 

July. 

August. 

Course. 

July. 

August. 

North. 

17 

55 

S  S.W. 

30 

71 

N.N.E. 

64 

74 

S.W. 

33 

63 

N.E. 

155 

149 

W.S.W. 

19 

43 

E.N.E. 

91 

71 

West. 

12 

25 

East. 

83 

60 

W.N.W. 

17 

21 

E.S.E. 

25 

26 

N.W. 

13 

24 

S.E. 

17 

26 

N.N.W. 

24 

56 

S.S.E. 

13 

33 

Calm. 

62 

78 

South. 

9 

44 

Total, 

684 

919 

Ascending  to  the  region  between  15°  and  20°  north  latitude, 
and  15°  to  45°  west  longitude,  we  get  north  of  the  belt  of  rains, 
and  lose  the  monsoons  entirely  although  still  below  the  desert  ;  and 
find  the  regular  N.E.  trades,  with  less  variable  winds  than  are 
found  in  almost  any  other  part  of  the  ocean,  as  shown  by  the  next 
table. 


Course. 

July. 

August. 

Course. 

July. 

August. 

North. 

39 

20 

S.S.W. 

0 

5 

N.N.E. 

210 

185 

S.W. 

0 

5 

N.E. 

112 

87 

W.S.W. 

8 

3 

E.N.E. 

114 

104 

West. 

0 

1 

East. 

20 

36 

W.N.W. 

0 

4 

E.S.E. 

21 

17 

N.W. 

3 

4 

S.E. 

0 

2 

N.N,W. 

3 

31 

S.S.E, 

2 

11 

Calm. 

20 

8 

South. 

5 

1 

Total, 

557 

526 

Ascending  still  further  to  the  region  between  20°  and  25°  north 
latitude,  and  15°  and  45°  west  longitude,  which  borders  in  part 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


137 


on  the  S.W.  corner  of  the  desert,  and  we  have  not,  during  the 
month  of  August,  a  single  wind  between  S.S.E.  and  W.N.W. 
which  blows  in  upon  the  land ;  and  only  twelve  instances  out  of 
three  hundred  and  ninety -four  in  this  hottest  month  in  the  year, 
and  on  the  southern  portion  of  the  desert,  when  the  wind  blows  on 
shore  from  any  quarter.  This  is  demonstration.  The  monsoon 
winds  are  confined  to  the  rainy  belt ;  they  do  not  reach  the  desert, 
nor  does  the  desert  attract  the  winds  from  the  ocean,  or  reverse, 
hold  back,  or  disturb  the  trades.  They  blow  uninterruptedly 
from  land  heated  up  to  130°  every  day,  on  to  water  which  is  never 
heated  above  82°. 


Course. 

July. 

August. 

Course. 

July. 

August 

North. 

25 

20 

S.S.W. 

3 

0 

NN.E. 

210 

153 

S.W. 

2 

0 

N.E. 

129 

77 

W.S.W. 

13 

0 

E.N.E. 

110 

86 

West. 

0 

0 

East. 

8 

20 

W.N.W. 

0 

3 

E.S.E. 

4 

11 

N.W. 

2 

1 

S.E. 

0 

3 

N.N.W. 

5 

8 

S.S.E. 

1 

7 

Calm. 

2 

5 

South. 

1 

0 

Total, 

515 

394 

Passing  on  to  Northern  South  America,  we  find  abundant  evi- 
dence of  the  fact.  Humboldt  has  given  us  a  graphic  description 
of  the  heat  of  the  earth  and  air  during  the  dry  season  upon  the 
plains  of  the  Orinoco,  when  the  trade-winds  are  blowing  over  it 
and  into  the  belt  of  rains  visibly  approaching  from  the  south. 

"  When,  beneath  the  vertical  rays  of  the  bright  and  cloudless 
sun  of  the  tropics,  the  parched  sward  crumbles  into  dust,  then  the 
indurated  soil  cracks  and  bursts,  as  if  rent  asunder  by  some  mighty 
earthquake.  The  hot  and  dusty  earth  forms  a  cloudy  vail,  which 
shrouds  the  heavens  from  view,  and  increases  the  stifling  oppres- 
sion of  the  atmosphere ;  while  the  east  wind  (•*'.  e.  trade-wind), 
when  it  blows  over  the  long  heated  soil,  instead  of  cooling,  adds 
to  the  burning  glow. 


138  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

"  Gradually,  too,  the  pools  of  water,  which  had  been  protected 
from  evaporation  by  the  now  seared  foliage  of  the  fan-palm,  dis- 
appear. As  in  the  icy  north,  animals  become  torpid  from  cold, 
so  here  the  crocodile  and  the  boa-constrictor  lie  wrapped  in  un- 
broken sleep,  deeply  buried  in  the  dried  soil.  Everywhere  the 
drouth  announces  death,  yet  everywhere  the  thirsty  wanderer  is 
deluded  by  the  phantom  of  a  moving,  undulating,  watery  surface, 
created  by  the  deceptive  play  of  the  reflected  rays  of  light  (the 
mirage.)  A  narrow  stratum  separates  the  ground  from  the  dis- 
tant palm-trees,  which  seem  to  hover  aloft,  owing  to  the  contact 
of  currents  of  air  having  different  degrees  of  heat,  and  therefore 
of  density.  Shrouded  in  dark  clouds  of  dust,  and  tortured  by 
hunger  and  burning  thirst,  oxen  and  horses  scour  the  plain,  the 
one  bellowing  dismally,  the  other  with  outstretched  necks  snuffing 
the  wind,  in  the  endeavor  to  detect,  by  the  moisture  in  the  air, 
the  vicinity  of  some  pool  of  water  not  yet  wholly  evaporated. 

"  Even  if  the  burning  heat  of  day  be  succeeded  by  the  cool 
freshness  of  the  night,  here  always  of  equal  length,  the  wearied 
ox  and  horse  enjoy  no  repose.  Huge  bats  now  attack  the  animals 
during  sleep,  and  vampire-like  suck  their  blood  ;  or,  fastening  on 
their  backs,  raise  festering  wounds,  in  which  mosquitoes,  hippo- 
bosces,  and  a  host  of  other  stinging  insects,  burrow  and  nestle. 
Such  is  the  miserable  existence  of  these  poor  animals,  when  the 
heat  of  the  sun  has  absorbed  the  waters  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

"  When,  after  a  long  drouth,  the  genial  season  of  rain  arrives, 
the  scene  suddenly  changes.  The  deep  azure  of  the  hitherto 
cloudless  sky  assumes  a  lighter  hue.  Scarcely  can  the  dark  space 
in  the  constellation  of  the  Southern  Cross  be  distinguished  at 
night.  The  mild  phosphorescence  of  the  Magellanic  clouds  fades 
away.  Even  the  vertical  stars  of  the  constellations  Aquila  and 
Ophiuchus,  shine  with  a  flickering  and  less  planetary  light.  Like 
some  distant  mountain,  a  single  cloud  is  seen  rising  perpendicularly 
on  the  southern  horizon.  Misty  vapors  collect  and  gradually 
overspread  the  heavens,  while  distant  thunder  proclaims  the  ap- 
proach of  the  vivifying  rain.  Scarcely  is  the  surface  of  the  earth 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  139 

moistened,  before  the  teeming  steppe  becomes  covered  with  Kil- 
lingise,  with  the  many-panicled  Paspalum,  and  a  variety  of  grasses. 
Excited  by  the  power  of  light,  the  herbaceous  Mimosa  unfolds  its 
dormant,  drooping  leaves,  hailing,  as  it  were,  the  rising  sun  in 
chorus  with  the  matin  song  of  the  birds,  and  the  opening  flowers 
of  aquatics.  Horses  and  oxen,  buoyant  with  life  and  enjoyment, 
roam  over  and  crop  the  plains.  The  luxuriant  grass  hides  the 
beautiful  and  spotted  jaguar,  who,  lurking  in  safe  concealment, 
and  carefully  measuring  the  extent  of  the  leap,  darts,  like  the 
Asiatic  tiger,  with  a  cat-like  bound  on  his  passing  prey." 

Such  is  Humboldt's  description  of  the  dry  season  on  the  Ori- 
noco, and  the  return  of  the  belt  of  rains  from  the  south. 

There  is  other  and  abundant  evidence  that  over  all  Northern 
South  America,  upon  the  mountains  and  upon  the  plains,  varying 
in  degree  according  to  the  elevation,  in  the  month  of  April,  before 
the  arrival  of  the  belt  of  rains  from  the  south,  the  temperature  is 
higher  than  it  is  after  they  have  arrived,  and  that  it  increases 
again  while  the  belt  moves  north  of  them  in  summer,  or  where  it 
continues  and  returns  again  in  the  fall.  And  so  of  May  in  the 
West  Indies. 

And  now  from  these  and  other  data,  it  may  be  safely  asserted, 
that  from  every  spot  upon  the  circumference  of  the  globe  the  trade- 
winds  blow,  on  the  north  of  the  central  belt,  during  its  northern 
transit,  from  extended  surfaces  where  the  earth  and  water  and  air 
are  not  less  than  5°,  and  in  some  places  40°  hotter  than  under 
that  belt  as  it  lies  to  the  south  of  them. 

Turning  now  to  the  south  side  of  the  belt,  upon  South  America, 
we  have  the  evidence  of  Lieut.  Gibbon,  who  was  sent  in  connec- 
tion with  Lieut.  Herndon  to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Amazon. 
Lieut.  Gibbon  reached  Cochabamba  in  December,  Lat.  18°  S.,  and 
remained  until  May.  The  central  belt  of  rains  reached  Cocha- 
bamba in  the  middle  of  January. 

In  December,  before  the  arrival  of  the  belt,  the  thermometer 
rose  frequently  at  midday  to  80°,  and  after  its  arrival,  and  while 
it  remained,  it  did  not  rise  except  in  two  or  three  instances  above 
70°.  When  the  belt  moved  to  the  north  again  in  February  and 


140  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

March,  the  thermometer  rose  again  to  80°  at  3  P.M.  Making 
allowance  for  the  altitude  of  the  sun,  and  the  altitude  of  Cocha- 
bamba  among  the  mountains,  the  difference  in  temperature,  both 
before  the  arrival  and  departure  of  the  rains,  was  at  least  10°  ; 
and  if  Cochabamba  had  been  situated  at  the  level  of  the  plains  of 
Orinoco,  it  would  have  been  from  20°  to  30°,  as  Humboldt  found 
it  there. 

From  the  log  of  an  intelligent  shipmaster,  found  in  the  wind 
and  current  charts  of  Lieut.  Maury,  I  abridge  the  following, 
which  will  illustrate  the  state  of  things  on  the  South  Atlantic. 
Capt.  Young,  in  February,  found  the  N.E.  trades  at  about  17° 
north  latitude,  with  the  water  at  75°  and  air  at  76°,  trade-wind 
N.E. 

At  120  16f  the  water  was  75°    the  air  76°  wind  N.B. 

Feb.22d.  9o  49f  "           "      76£°       "      77°      "  N.E. 

"  23d.  7°13r  "           "      78           »      78o      «  N.E. 

"  24th.  noobs.  "           "      79£°       'l      79°      •«  N.E.,E.S.E.,rain. 

"  25th.  3°  lOt  "           "      810        «      83°      "  E.S.E.  rain. 

«  26th.          noobs.  «  «      82'         "      82»      «    {         * 


"  27.th.             2?  2V  "  "  82°  "  82°  "  calm  with  rain. 

"  28th.  no  oba.  "  "  82o  «  82°  "  calm  rain. 

March  1st.          0°  29f  "  '  82°  »  82°  »  E.S.E.,  sqs.,  rain. 

"       2d.          1°27>S.L.  '•  "  82°  "  82°  »  SE,  sqs.,  rain 


3d.  2°44f  "  "      82°        •'      83° 


f  S.B.  and  S.S.E. 


I  weather  settled. 

"    5th.  6°08/  "  ik      82°         "      84°      "      S.E.,  fair  weather. 

»    6th.  8°08/  "  «      82°         •<      84°      "    { fai^eathe?.'E'' 

Here  the  air  was  seven  degrees  colder  at  the  extreme  limit  of 
the  N.E.  trades  than  in  the  center  of  the  belt  of  rains,  as  it  is, 
usually,  in  mid-winter,  but  not  in  summer.  On  the  other  hand, 
after  he  left  the  region  of  calms  and  rains,  where  the  water  and 
air  stood  with  almost  entire  uniformity  at  82°,  on  the  3d  of  March, 
and  for  three  days  thereafter,  during  which  he  was  in  the  S.E. 
trades  with  fair  weather,  the  water  was  the  same  as  under  the 
supposed  vortex,  viz.,  82°,  and  the  air  rose  to  83°  and  84°.  This 
is  demonstration,  that  on  the  summer  side  of  the  central  belt,  the 
air  is  hotter  than  under  it. 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  141 

Passing  east  to  South  Africa,  we  have  the  evidence  of  Livings- 
tone. He  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  records  in  his  journey  to 
Loanda,  and  he  does  not  give  us  tabular  observations,  but  he  fur- 
nishes other  evidence  which  is  perfectly  satisfactory. 

On  his  return  from  Loanda  to  Liiivanti,  he  made  preparations 
for  his  journey  to  the  eastern  coast,  and  was  ready  to  start  in. 
September,  but  the  natives  with  whom  he  was  staying,  opposed 
it,  and  of  that  opposition  he  thus  speaks  :  "  Being  near  the  end 
of  September,  the  rains  were  expected  daily;  the  clouds  ivere 
collecting  and  the  wind  blew  strongly  from  the  east,  but  it  was  ex- 
cessively hot,  All  the  Makololo  urged  me  strongly  to  remain  till 
the  ground  should  be  cooled  by  the  rains  ;  and  as  it  was  probable 
that  I  should  get  fever  if  I  commenced  my  journey  now,  I  resolved 
to  wait.  The  parts  of  the  country  about  17°  and  18°  (S.  L.)  suf- 
fer from  drouth,  and  become  dusty.  It  is  but  the  commencement 
of  the  humid  region  to  the  north,  and  partakes  occasionally  of  the 
character  of  both  the  wet  and  dry  regions.  Some  idea  may  be 
formed  of  the  heat  in  October  by  the  fact  that  the  thermometer 
(protected)  stood,  in  the  shade  of  my  wagon  at  100°  during  the 
day.  It  rose  to  110°  if  unprotected  from  the  wind;  at  dark  it 
showed  89°  ;  at  10  o'clock,  80°,  and  then  gradually  sunk  till  sun- 
rise, when  it  was  70°  " 

"  During  the  whole  of  my  stay  with  the  Makololo,  Sekelutu, 
supplied  my  wants  abundantly,  appointing  some  cows  to  furnish 
me  with  milk,  and,  when  he  went  out  to  hunt,  sent  home  orders 
for  slaughtered  oxen  to  be  given.  That  the  food  was  not  given 
in  a  niggardly  spirit  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that,  when  I 
proposed  to  depart  on  the  20th  of  October,  he  protested  against 
my  going  oif  in  such  a  hot  sun.  "  Only  wait,"  said  he,  "  for  the 
first  shower,  and  then  I  will  let  you  go."  This  was  reasonable, 
for  the  thermometer,  placed  upon  a  deal  box  in  the  sun,  rose  to 
138°.  It  stood  at  108°  in  the  shade  by  day  and  96°  at  sunset." 

Under  date  of  22d  October,  the  rains  set  in,  and  he  made  ready 
to  go,  and  on  the  3d  of  November  departed,  meeting  a  tremendous 
thunder-storm  on  the  night  of  his  journey.  That  the  state  of 


142  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

things  on  Southern  Africa  is  substantially  the  same  as  upon 
Northern  Africa  is  sufficiently  shown  by  these  extracts. 

The  only  remaining  land  surfaces  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere 
from  which  evidence  could  be  derived,  are  Australia  and  the 
Islands  of  the  South  Pacific.  Of  these  there  is  little  to  be  learned, 
except  from  the  general  statements  of  navigators.  Northern  and 
Central  Australia  have  been  but  little  explored,  and  the  southern 
part  of  Australia  is  watered  by  the  south  polar  zone  of  rains. 

Those  who  desire  to  look  further  at  this  matter,  will  find  much 
interesting  evidence  in  the  3d  chapter  of  Hopkins  on  "  Atmos- 
pheric changes."  I  shall  have  room  for  a  few  extracts  only. 

"  It  is  true  that  regular  alternating  sea  and  land  breezes  are 
found  on  coasts  of  continents  and  islands  in  many  parts  of  the 
world ;  but,  to  those  who  think  that  they  are  produced  by  sun- 
heated  land,  it  must  seem  a  singular  fact,  that  such  breezes 
should  not  be  found  in  those  parts  where  the  causes  which  are 
supposed  to  produce  them  exist  in  the  strongest  degree.  The  sun 
must  heat  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Sahara,  or  North  African 
Desert,  every  day  up  to  a  very  high  temperature,  yet  no  regular 
sea-breeze  prevails  on  this  coast.  Now  if  sun-heated  land  caused 
the  sea-breeze  in  the  way  described,  how  could  this  be  ?  It  is 
known  also,  that  the  temperature  of  the  land  in  this  part  sinks 
greatly  at  night,  and  there  is,  consequently,  that  difference  of  tem- 
perature between  day  and  night  which  it  is  presumed  always 
produces  the  sea  and  land  breezes,  but  no  such  breezes  are  found 
here.  The  northeast  trade-wind,  in  a  gentle  form,  prevails  dur- 
ing a  great  part  of  the  year  off  this  coast,  and  the  atmosphere  is 
clear.  To  use  the  language  of  Malte  Brun — "  The  earth  beneath 
is  scorching,  the  sky  above  is  on  fire  on  the  desert  land,  while  the 
trade  wind  near  to  it  is  comparatively  cool,  and  yet  there  is  no 
sea  breeze.  It  may  be  said  that  the  trade-wind,  blowing  away 
from  the  coast,  is  sufficiently  strong  to  overcome  the  tendency  of 
the  air  to  flow  from  the  sea  to  the  hot  desert.  That,  however,  is 
giving  up,  in  this  instance,  the  theory  in  question." 

"  But  the  northwest  coast  of  Africa  is  only  one  out  of  a  num- 
ber which  might  be  named.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  Arabian 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  143 

Sea,  land  is  found  which  in  our  summers  is  heated  up  to  a  high 
temperature.  The  southern  part  of  Arabia  is  very  hot,  compared 
with  the  temperature  of  the  adjoining  sea,  but  does  the  air  flow 
from  that  sea  toward  and  over  the  heated  land  ?  It  certainly  does 
not.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  summer  monsoon  is  the  strongest, 
and  the  land  of  Arabia  the  hottest,  the  wind  blows  from  the  west, 
and  consequently  it  blows  from  the  greatly  heated  land  towards 
and  over  the  cool  sea,  or  just  in  the  opposite  direction  to  what 
would  be  found  if  the  common  theory  respecting  the  cause  of  sea- 
breezes  were  true." 

"  And  to  the  south  of  Arabia,  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa, 
from  Cape  Guardafui,  by  the  dry  desert  of  Ajan,  Zanguebar, 
and  Mozambique,  extending  from  10°  N.  to  20°  S.,  there  is  land 
so  greatly  heated  as  to  make  it  some  of  the  hottest  in  the  world ; 
yet  the  comparatively  cool  air  of  the  Indian  Ocean  does  not  flow 
toward  this  land,  but  as  on  the  Arabian  coast,  the  wind  blows 
from  the  heated  land  over  the  cool  sea." 

"  If  any  one  part  of  the  broad  expanse  of  the  continent  of  Asia 
could  be  heated  so  as  to  draw  air  from  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  in  summer,  it  would  be  that  part  which  lies  between 
Hindostan  and  the  Lake  of  Aral,  including  the  region  between 
the  valley  of  the  Oxus  and  Persia,  and  the  land  of  this  part,  un- 
like Hindostan,  is  not  screened  from  the  sun  by  thick  vapors. 
But  what  says  Burnes  respecting  the  winds  of  this  part?  Why, 
that  about  the  latter  end  of  June,  though  the  thermometer  was 
at  103°  in  the  day,  *In  this  country  a  steady  wind  generally 
blows  from  the  north/  And  on  the  23d  of  August,  after  having 
passed  the  Oxus,  *  The  heat  of  the  sand  rose  to  150°,  and  that 
of  the  atmosphere  exceeded  100°,  but  the  wind  blew  steadily,  nor 
do  I  believe  that  it  would  be  possible  to  traverse  this  track  in 
summer,  if  it  ceased  to  blow.  The  steady  manner  in  which  it 
comes  from  one  direction  is  remarkable  in  this  inland  country/ 
Again,  *  the  air  itself  was  not  disturbed  but  by  the  usual  north 
wind  that  blows  steadily  in  this  desert/  and  he  has  many  other 
similar  passages." 

"  Indeed,  from  Madeira,  by  the  Canary  Islands,  along  the  coast 


144  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

to  Cape  Blanco,  and  the  Cape  Verd  Islands,  either  calms  or  dry 
winds  from  the  desert  are  generally  met  with.  The  harmattan, 
or  land  wind  of  the  desert,  is  sometimes  encountered,  and  it  is  this 
wind  which  takes  the  fine  dust  so  far  out  to  sea.  The  whole  of  the 
coast  is  remarkable  for  the  want  of  water,  in  that  particular  resem- 
bling the  south  coast  of  Arabia  and  the  eastern  coast  of  tropical 
Africa,  and  in  none  of  those  parts  does  the  wind  blow  from  the 
cool  sea  to  the  heated  land." 

With  these  extracts,  and  with  the  assurance  that  during  nearly 
fifty  years  attention  to  this  subject,  and  the  devotion  to  it,  as  an 
incidental  speciality,  of  very  much  of  my  miscellaneous  reading, 

I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  within  the  zone  in  question  a 
single  spot  upon  the  land  adjoining  the  central  belt  of  rain  upon 
the  summer  side  of  it,  where  the  earth  and  the  air  are  not  hotter 
than  under  the  belt  toward  which  the  air  is  moving,  nor  any  upon 
the  water,  except  where  a  cold,  antarctic  polar  current  is  inter- 
posed, as  upon  the  western  coast  of  South  America.     Allusion  is 
often  made  to  the  cold  ocean  wind  which  blows  in  upon  the  west- 
ern coast  of  California,  particularly  at  San  Francisco  from  about 

II  A.M.  to  5  P.M.,  from  the  W.  or  W.N.W,  and  the  cause  as^ 
signed,  is  the  rising  of  the  heated  air  in  the  valleys  of  the  San 
Joaquin  and  Sacramento  which  lie  east  of  it.     The  entire  valley 
east  of  the   Coast   Range  is  unquestionably  hot,  but  the    cold 
ocean  wind  that  blows  in  over  the  western  coast  never  reaches  it. 
Mr.  George  Bartlett,  in  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science  and 
Arts,''  for  September,  1856,  thus  speaks  of  it : 

"  The  most  wonderful  phenomenon  of  the  California  climates  is 
the  marked  manner  in  which  they  are  cut  in  two  by  no  higher 
chain  of  mountains  than  the  coast  range.  This  range  extends 
along  the  coast  of  California  from  latitude  34£°  to  41^°  and  is  so 
low  that  snow  collects  during  the  winter  only  on  a  few  of  the 
highest  peaks.  Now  while  the  western  side  of  this  range  has  the 
cold  summer  above  described,  the  valley  on  the  east  side  is  one 
of  the  hottest  portions  of  the  earth.  This  valley,  through  which 
flows  in  opposite  directions  the  waters  of  the  Sacramento  and  the 
San  Joaquin,  extends  about  400  miles  from  north  to  south,  with 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  145 

an  average  breadth  of  perhaps  60  miles  from  the  Coast  Range 
on  the  west  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  east.  It  is  a  very  flat 
valley,  much  more  level  than  the  western  prairies,  and  occupies 
the  great  portion  of  the  interior  of  California.  It  has  been  quite 
difficult  to  obtain  exposures  of  a  thermometer  which  were  unob- 
jectionable. In  the  cloth  tents  and  stores  which  were  in  use  in 
18-19  and  '50,  the  temperature  would  range  in  the  warm  days 
from  115°  to  120°.  On  the  north  side  of  a  large  tree,  also  in  a 
wooden  cabin  covered  with  earth,  a  friend  of  the  writer  observed 
the  mercury  at  110°  and  112°  during  many  of  the  days  of  1850. 
On  the  north  side  of  a  large  two-story  frame  house,  with  but  one 
other  house  near,  and  that  one  several  rods  distant,  the  writer  has 
observed  the  mercury  at  109°.  But  Dr.  Haille  of  Marysville, 
by  hanging  his  thermometer  in  a  draught  of  air,  in  the  back  part 
of  his  office,  where  it  was  shaded  by  high  buildings  around,  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  the  mercury  down  to  102°  during  the  summer 
of  1852.  The  sun  rises  clear  in  the  east,  rolls  up  over  the  heads 
of  the  inhabitants,  drying  and  scorching  everything  in  sight,  and 
sinks  into  the  west.  "  One  unclouded  blaze  of  living  light." 
And  this  is  repeated  day  after  day,  and  month  after  month.  The 
hottest  time  of  day  is  about  5^  in  the  afternoon.  The  nights  are 
cool ;  you  need  two  or  three  blankets  to  sleep  comfortably  even  in 
the  hottest  part  of  the  summer.  A  plate  of  butter,  set  in  a  com- 
mon wooden  house,  will  be  perfectly  liquid  at  night,  and  entirely 
hard  in  the  morning,  and  these  changes  will  occur  every  24  hours 
for  months  in  succession. 

"  The  change  from  the  cold  climate  of  the  coast,  to  the  heat  of 
the  valley  is  marvellous.  You  go  on  board  a  steamboat  at  San 
Francisco  at  4  o'clock,  in  the  afternoon,  and  find  the  passengers 
all  dressed  in  winter  clothing,  flannels  and  overcoats,  huddled 
around  the  stove  in  the  cabin  with  its  hot  anthracite  fire.  The 
next  morning  at  sunrise,  you  find  yourself  going  up  the  Sacra- 
mento river,  and  as  your  state-room  is  insufferably  hot,  you  put  on 
the  thinnest  summer  clothing,  and  go  out  on  the  guards  of  the  boat, 
oppressed  with  the  heat,  and  the  prespiration  starting  from  your 
pores." 


146  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Mr.  Hittell,  whose  work  on  the  "  Resources  of  California"  is 
just  published,  says,  that  at  Stockton,  which  is  nearly  east  of  San 
Francisco,  the  thermometer  may  be  found  every  noon  at  1 00° 
nearly  every  summer,  and  that  the  county  assessor  of  Fresno 
County  stated  in  his  annual  report  for  1857,  that  the  mean  tem- 
perature at  Millerton,  during  the  summer  months  was  106°.  To 
this  temperature  of  Millerton,  I  have  already  referred. 

It  is  clear  that  the  valley  of  the  San  Joaquin  is  hot  enough  to 
create  wind  of  any  degree  of  force  which  could  ever  be  created 
by  sun-heated  land,  and  equally  clear  that  it  creates  no  wind  at 
all,  for  the  heat  goes  on  increasing  every  day,  until  5  o'clock,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Bartlett,  unaffected  by  the  cold  coast  wind  which 
has  then  been  blowing  6  hours  at  the  rate  of  from  12  to  20  miles 
per  hour  at  San  Francisco,  within  40  miles  of  it.  Wind  created 
by  suction  begins  at  the  place  of  suction,  but  where  wind  is  not 
known,  suction  must  necessarily  be  presumed  to  be  absent. 

Before  I  leave  the  consideration  of  this  peculiar  coast  wind,  I 
want  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact,  that  there  is  combined  upon 
the  west  side  of  the  coast  range  of  California,  all  the  elements 
required  by  closet-theorists  to  get  up  a  daily  rain  ;  there  is  a  cold 
ocean  wind,  saturated  with  moisture,  rushing  up  the  sides  of  the 
mountains  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  high,  at  the  rate  of  from  12  to 
20  miles  an  hour,  but  not  producing  rain,  an  observable  vortex,  or 
even  a  cloud.  Why  one  or  the  other  is  not  produced,  as  theory 
requires  should  be,  has  not  been,  and  cannot  be  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained by  them.  What  the  true  explanation  of  this  ocean  wind 
is,  will  appear  hereafter. 

I  have  thus  shown  conclusively,  that  the  theory  of  a  vortex  in 
the  central  belt  of  rains,  producing  the  trade-winds,  is  not  sup- 
ported by  the  claim  that  the  air  and  water  are  there  materially 
hotter,  but  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that  everywhere  they  are 
materially  colder.  Such  evidence  will  be  sufficient  with  profes- 
sional and  practical  men,  to  dispose  of  any  theory  in  relation  to 
any  matter  of  knowledge  or  science,  but  it  has  been  and  will  be 
otherwise,  wkh  the  class  of  men  who  claim  to  be  meteorologists. 
The  false  assumption  of  Halley,  made  at  the  time  as  only  an  as- 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  14? 

sumption,  supported  since  by  assumptions  and  unsupported  by  any 
facts  then  or  since  known,  has  been  so  long  received  without 
question,  and  so  many  other  theories  to  which  such  men  have 
committed  themselves,  in  lectures  and  essays,  are  dependent  upon 
it,  and  they  so  persistently  ignore  and  repudiate  all  facts  or  dis- 
coveries inconsistent  with  it,  that  it  seems  a  duty  to  go  farther 
and  show,  that  rightly  understood,  there  is  not  a  fact  in  nature 
that  is  consistent  with  it.  I  proceed  then  in  the  second  place,  to 
examine  the  question  whether  heat,  as  a  mechanical  agent,  opera- 
ting upon  portions  of  the  atmosphere,  can  produce  such  effects. 
Sir  John  Tyndall  found  that  the  hot  air  of  a  Turkish  bath, 
when  the  door  of  the  room  is  opened,  will  flow  out  near  the  top 
of  the  door  with  sufficient  force  to  flare  a  taper,  and  that  the  cold 
air  flows  in  with  a  like  force  at  the  bottom.  How  hot  the  room 
was  he  does  not  say ;  the  general  practice  is  to  heat  such  rooms 
up  to  about  the  temperature  of  150°  or  160°.  Neither  of  the 
currents  blew  out  the  candle ;  now  a  candle  cannot  be  carried  in 
the  open  air  without  being  blown  out,  where  the  wind  is  blowing 
at  the  rate  of  1 2  miles  an  hour.  The  force  of  the  current  must 
then  have  been  considerably  less  than  that,  and  judging  from  ex- 
periment, it  was  not  probably  half  of  it.  Again,  the  air  of  this 
room  was  confined,  and  heated  air  not  only  tends  to  expand  hori- 
zontally as  well  as  perpendicularly,  but  it  is  subject  to  the  law  of 
diffusion,  and  if  it  had  not  been  confined  by  the  room,  would  have 
been  influenced  by  that  law  of  lateral  diffusion,  and  the  tendency 
to  rise  perpendicularly  would  have  been  lessened.  The  experi- 
ment of  Sir  John  then  showed  the  concentrated  action  of  heat  as 
a  mode  of  motion,  upon  the  atmosphere,  which  might  have  been 
attended  with  very  different  results  if  made  in  the  open  air.  All 
the  most  violent  hurricanes,  in  which  it  is  conceded  that  the  wind 
must  blow  80  or  90  miles  an  hour,  originate  where  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  and  water  do  not  exceed  84°.  Now  if  Sir  John 
could  not  get  motion  enough  by  heat,  as  a  mode  of  motion,  when 
applied  to  air  in  a  confined  room,  until  its  temperature  was  raised 
to  150°,  to  blow  out  a  taper,  how  perfectly  absurd  to  claim  that 
by  heat  as  a  mode  of  motion,  raising  the  atmosphere  to  a  temper- 


148  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ature  of  84°,  an  uprising  suction  is  created,  which  produces  a 
current  of  90  miles  per  hour,  wlm-e  effects  are  so  awfully  destruc- 
tive ?  The  experiment  of  Sir  John  with  the  Turkish  bath  would 
not  have  varied  materially  if  his  door  had  opened  through  the 
floor  above,  instead  of  at  the  side.  Suppose  now  we  state  it  as  a 
mathematical  proposition.  Assuming  that  the  current  that  creates 
the  vacuum,  and  the  current  that  fills  it  are  of  the  same  velocity, 
and  assuming  that  heated  air  at  a  temperature  of  150°  will  rise 
at  the  rate  of  10  miles  an  hour,  what  must  be  its  temperature  to 
give  it  an  ascensive  velocity  of  90  miles  per  hour  ?  Answer,  84°. 
And  just  such  a  problem  as  that  is  being  taught  every  day  in  the 
colleges  of  the  country.  But  let  me  suggest  a  few  experiments. 
Many  of  you  have  furnaces  in  your  houses.  Take  now  some 
occasion  when  there  is  a  strong  fire  in  your  furnace  and  when  the 
air  outside  is  still,  and  the  wind  does  not  blow  into  the  cold -air 
box,  to  shut  all  the  registers  except  the  one  most  directly  over 
the  furnace.  Hold  a  thermometer  in  the  current,  until  satisfied 
that  the  air  in  the  hot  air  chamber  beneath  has  attained  a  tem- 
perature of  130°,  which  is  a  greater  temperature  than  is  ever 
given  to  the  earth's  surface  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  at  midday,  ex- 
cept upon  some  arid,  rainless  desert.  Now  fold  three  double  sheet 
newspapers,  weighing  5  ounces,  and  lay  lightly  upon  the  register, 
and  you  will  find  there  is  not  ascensive  force  enough  in  the  heated 
air  of  130°  to  raise  them.  Lift  them  up  and  hold  them  one  foot 
above  the  register,  then  let  them  drop,  and  they  will  fall,  notwith- 
standing the  air  is  rising  with  nearly  the  same  rapidity  as  if  there 
were  no  current.  Then  take  two  papers  and  you  will  find  they 
fall  in  the  same  way,  though  not  as  rapidly,  and  substantially  pre- 
vent the  ascent  of  the  heated  air.  Even  a  single  paper  will  not 
be  blown  away  from  over  the  register,  with  the  air  at  130°,  al- 
though it  may  be  moved  somewhat.  At  84°  and  even  at  100°, 
the  ascensive  force  of  a  column  of  heated  and  confined  air,  10 
inches  in  diameter,  and  8  feet  high,  will  not  exceed  1  ounce.  In 
the  open  air,  where  the  law  of  diffusion  can  operate,  it  is  very 
much  less. 

Or,  if  you  have  not  a  furnace  in  the  house,  try  the  experiment 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM!.  149 

in  another  way.  Nail  together  four  boards  of  any  convenient 
length,  say  7  or  8  feet,  so  as  to  make  a  tight,  square  box  one  foot 
in  diameter,  in  the  clear,  and  raise  it  perpendicularly  a  convenient 
distance,  say  10  or  12  inches  from  the  ground  or  floor,  place  in  it 
a  thermometer  with  an  angular  tube,  if  you  have  one,  or  adopt 
any  other  method  of  ascertaining  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere within  the  box,  cover  it  with  a  piece  of  pasteboard  of  ordin- 
ary thickness  or  weighing  not  more  than  two  ounces.  Then  put 
inside  the  box,  resting  upon  the  floor,  two  or  three  kerosene  lamps, 
which  will  heat  the  air  within  the  box,  and  see  what  temperature 
is  required  to  raise  the  pasteboard  from  the  top.  Aid  the  experi- 
ment if  you  will,  by  opening  the  windows  and  letting  the  cold  air 
in,  or  try  it  by  any  other  means,  and  you  will  find  that  the  ascen- 
sive  force  of  a  column  of  heated  air  7  or  8  feet  long,  and  1  foot 
square,  does  not  exceed  2  ounces.  Then  reduce  the  temperature 
to  84°,  the  temperature  which  is  said  to  produce  hurricanes,  and 
which  is  higher  by  14°  than  that  which  existed  before  and  dur- 
ing the  Cincinnati  hurricane,  or  than  that  which  existed  where  some 
of  the  most  violent  tornadoes  have  originated,  and  you  will  find  that 
the  ascensive  force  of  a  column  of  air  7  feet  long  and  1  foot  square, 
does  not  exceed  ^  of  an  ounce,  when  the  outside  air  is  at  zero. 

There  is  a  strong  draught  undoubtedly,  up  a  chimney,  where 
there  is  a  strong  fire,  and  the  air  is  heated  to  a  great  heat,  but  the 
strongest  draught  that  ever  was  created  by  mere  heat,  without  a 
blower,  in  chimney  or  furnace  stack,  can  be  stopped  by  a  less 
weight  than  that  of  an  inch  pine  board,  on  the  top.  I  have 
passed  round  a  burning  block  in  a  city,  in  which  there  was  a  large 
piano-factory,  containing  a  very  large  amount  of  seasoned  lumber, 
and  the  whole  interior  part,  and  much  of  the  rest  of  the  block  on 
fire;  the  air  was  rising,  full  of  sparks,  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  300  or  400  degrees,  at  a  velocity  not  exceeding  20  miles  an 
hour,  and  the  inward  draught  in  the  most  favorable  spots  would 
not  have  extinguished  a  taper.  And  there  was  an  obvious  set- 
tling down  of  the  air  adjoining  the  vortex  to  supply  the  place  of 
that  which  was  ascending,  clearly  visible  by  the  eddies  of  smoke^ 
so  that  no  wind  was  created. 


150  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

The  air  which  ascends  from  the  chimney  of  a  farmer's  hard 
wood  fire,  over  which  the  tea-kettle  and  pot  are  boiling,  goes  up 
into  the  cold  winter  air,  after  leaving  the  chimney,  (though  charged 
with  vapor  and  smoke  and  heat,)  but  a  little  way  before  it  is  dif- 
fused into  the  atmosphere.  It  has  little  ascensive  force  or  veloc- 
ity. A  moderate  breeze  will  turn  it  almost  at  right  angles. 

The  smoke  of  the  most  extensive  conflagrations  which  occur  in 
times  of  drouth,  has  never  been  carried  above  the  surface  story 
of  the  atmosphere,  but  it  is  diffused  and  expanded  near  the  sur- 
face, and  floats  near  the  earth  to  the  leeward,  sometimes  hundreds 
of  miles.  When  the  railioad  was  first  built  upon  Long  Island, 
the  locomotive  frequently  set  the  combustible  material  upon  its 
scrub  oak  plains  on  fire,  occasioning  extensive  conflagrations,  in 
times  of  drouth.  At  such  times  I  have  seen  across  the  level  sur- 
face that  intervenes,  and  at  a  distance  of  15  to  20  miles,  and,  in 
a  still  time,  for  several  successive  days,  a  column  of  smoke  ris- 
ing from  the  extensive  fire,  gradually  diffusing,  dissipating,  and 
becoming  invisible.  I  never  saw  such  a  column  of  smoke,  or 
any  column  fiom  any  fire,  however  extensive,  rising  above  1500 
feet ;  I  doubt  whether  there  ever  was  a  column  which  had  ascen- 
sive force  enough  to  carry  it  a  greater  distance,  however  exten- 
sive the  fire  or  great  the  heat*  By  the  time  it  reaches  that  ele- 
vation, its  ascensive  force  is  overcome  by  the  laws  of  diffusion 
and  expansion.  Nor  have  I  seen  a  stove  heated  hot  enough  to 
hoist  off  one  of  the  revolving  toys  made  of  paper,  and  which  are 
hung  on  a  point  above  it  by  their  weight  merely. 

In  the  early  history  of  ballooning,  the  Montgolfiers  attempted 
it  with  balloons  filled  with  confined  heated  air.  They  succeeded, 
by  building  a  balloon  35  feet  in  diameter,  containing  23,000  cubic 
feet  of  air,  heated  by  the  burning  of  chopped  straw  and  wool 
to  a  high  temperature,  in  raising  a  weight  of  500  pounds.  To 
what  degree  of  heat  the  air  in  the  balloon  was  raised,  to  en- 
able ?t  to  raise  500  pounds,  I  do  not  know,  but  it  must  have  been 
far  above  any  created  by  the  sun  in  the  atmosphere,  in  any  part 
of  the  earth,  and  yet  the  ascensive  force  was  but  \  of  an  ounce 
to  the  foot.  Their  second  experiment  was  a  success,  and  they 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  151 

attained  the  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  with  a  balloon  74  feet  high 
and  48  feet  in  diameter,  but  by  keeping  the  air  of  the  balloon  heat- 
ed to  a  high  temperature  by  constant  fire  at  its  mouth.  Balloons 
are  still  made  and  sent  up,  as  matter  of  amusement,  filled  with 
heated  air,  and  provided  with  a  lamp  at  the  mouth,  to  keep  the 
air  heated.  But  attempts  to  carry  any  considerable  weight  into 
the  atmosphere,  by  means  of  balloons  filled  with  heated  air,  ended 
with  the  Montgolfiers,  and  no  man  now  would  think  of  acquiring 
for  a  balloon  or  anything  else,  any  considerable  ascensive  force  or 
power,  with  the  temperature  known  to  exist  in  the  central  belt  of 
rains,  or  anywhere  else  upon  the  earth  where  hurricanes  or  storms 
of  any  description  originate,  without  a  very  cold  surrounding  at- 
mosphere. The  rule  for  rarified  air  balloons,  as  given  by  Mr. 
Wise,  is  one  cubic  foot  of  air  heated  one  hundred  degrees  above  the. 
surrounding  air,  to  attain  an  ascending  power  of  one-third  of  an 
ounce  !  but  I  give  it  in  his  own  words. 

"  In  making  small  fire  balloons,  we  must  not  calculate  on  more 
than  one-third  of  an  ounce  of  ascending  power,  for  every  cubic 
foot  of  capacity  in  the  machine.  Thus,  if  we  look  at  the  table 
of  capacities  and  dimensions  of  balloons,  we  find  a  three  feet 
diameter  one  to  contain  fourteen  cubic  feet.  Hence  one  of  this 
size,  with  highly  rarified  air  would  raise  about  five  ounces,  and 
hence  if  the  balloon  and  sponge  weigh  more  than  five  ounces,  it 
will  not  rise,  at  least  not  by  raising  the  temperature  of  air  in  it 
one  hundred  degrees  above  its  surrounding  atmosphere" 

And  now  by  way  of  contrast  to  this  infinitesimal  power,  let  me 
copy  a  description  of  a  West  India  hurricane  which  occurred  at 
Barbadoes,  10th  August,  1831,  as  described  by  Gen.  Reid.  It 
was  violent,  but  not  the  most  violent  of  its  class. 

u  At  7  P.M.  the  sky  was  clear  and  the  air  calm  ;  tranquility 
reigned  until  a  little  after  9,  when  the  wind  blew  again  from  the 
north ;  distant  lightning  was  observed  at  half  past  10  in  the 
N.N.E.  and  N.W,  Squalls  of  wind  and  rain  from  the  N.N.E. 
with  intermediate  calms  succeeded  each  other  until  midnight ;  the 
thermometer  fell  to  83°  Fahrenheit,  and  during  the  calms  it  rose 
as  high  as  86°  ;  after  midnight  the  continued  flashing  of  the  light- 


152  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ning  was  awfully  grand,  and  a  gale  blew  fiercely  from  the  north  and 
north-east ;  but  at  1  A.M.  on  August  1 1  th,  the  tempestuous  rage 
of  the  wind  increased,  the  storm  which  at  one  time  blew  from 
the  N.E.,  suddenly  shifted  from  that  quarter  and  burst  from  the 
N.W.  and  intermediate  points.  The  upper  regions  were  from 
this  time  illuminated  by  incessant  lightning,  but  the  quivering 
sheet  of  blaze  was  surpassed  in  brilliancy  by  the  darts  of  electric 
fire,  which  were  exploded  in  every  direction.  At  a  little  after  2, 
the  astounding  roar  of  the  hurricane,  which  rushed  from  the 
N.N.W.  and  N.W.,  cannot  be  described  by  language.  Lieut.  Col. 
Nickle,  commanding  the  3Gth  regiment,  who  had  sought  protec- 
tion by  getting  under  an  arch  of  a  lower  window,  outside  his  house, 
did  not  hear  the  roof  and  upper  story  fall,  and  was  only  assured 
this  had  occurred  by  the  dust  caused  by  the  falling  ruins.  About 
3  the  wind  occasionally  abated,  but  intervening  gusts  proceeded 
from  the  S.W.,  the  W.  and  W.N.W.,  with  accumulated  fury. 

"  The  lightning  also  having  ceased  for  a  few  moments  only  at 
a  time,  the  blackness  in  which  the  town  was  enveloped,  was  inex- 
pressibly awful ;  fiery  meteors  were  presently  seen  falling  from 
the  heavens ;  one  in  particular,  of  a  globular  form,  and  a  deep, 
red  hue,  was  observed  to  descend  perpendicularly  from  a  vast 
height;  it  evidently  fell  by  its  specific  gravity  and  was  not  shot 
or  propelled  by  any  extraneous  force.  On  approaching  the  earth 
with  accelerated  motion,  it  assumed  a  dazzling  whiteness  and  an 
elongated  form,  and,  dashing  to  the  ground,  in  Beckwith  Square, 
it  splashed  around  in  the  same  manner  as  melted  wax  would  have 
done,  arid  was  instantly  extinct.  In  shape  and  size  it  appeared 
much  like  a  common  barrel-shade ;  its  brilliancy  and  the  spatter- 
ing of  its  particles  on  meeting  the  earth,  gave  it  the  resemblance 
of  a.  body  of  quicksilver  of  equal  bulk.  A  few  minutes  after  the 
appearance  of  this  phenomenon,  the  deafening  noise  of  the  wind 
sank  to  a  solemn  murmur,  or  more  correctly  speaking,  a  distant 
roar,  and  the  lightning  which  from  midnight  had  flashed  and  dart- 
ed forkedly,  with  few  and  but  momentary  intermissions,  now  for 
a  space  of  nearly  half  a  minute,  played  frightfully  between  the 
clouds  and  the  earth,  with  novel  and  surprising  action.  The  vast 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  153 

bo  ly  of  vapor  appeared  to  touch  the  houses,  and  issued  down- 
ward flaming  blazes,  which  were  nimbly  returned  from  the  earth 
upward. 

"The  moment  after  this  singular  alternation  of  lightning,  the 
hurricane  again  burst  from  the  western  points,  with  violence  pro- 
digious beyond  description,  hurling  before  it  thousands  of  missiles, 
the  fragments  of  every  unsheltered  structure  of  human  art.  The 
strongest  houses  were  caused  to  vibrate  to  their  foundations,  and 
the  surface  of  the  very  earth  trembled,  as  the  destroyer  raged 
over  it.  No  thunder  was  at  any  time  distinctly  heard.  The  hor- 
rible roar  and  yelling  of  the  wind,  the  noise  of  the  ocean,  -whose 
frightful  waves  threatened  the  town  with  destruction  of  all  that 
the  other  elements  might  spare,  the  clattering  of  tiles,  the  falling 
of  roofs  and  walls,  and  the  combination  of  a  thousand  other  souridfe, 
formed  a  hideous  and  appalling  din.  No  adequate  idea  of -the 
sensations  which  then  distracted  and  confounded  the  faculties,  can 
possibly  be  conveyed  to  those  who  were  distant  from -the  scene 
of  terror.  -  ' •  ••  *' 

"  After  5  o'clock,  the  storm,  now  and  then  for  a  few  moments 
abating,  made  clearly  audible  the -falling  of  tiles  and -building  ma- 
terials, which  by  the  last  gust  had  probably  been  carried  to  a  lofty 
height.  At  6  A.M.  the  wind  was  at  S.,  and  at  7,  S.E.,  at  8, 
E.S.E.,  and  at  9,  there  was^again  clear  weather. 

As  soon  as  dawn  rendered  -  outward  objects  visible,:  the  writer 
proceeded,  but  with  difficulty 'to  the  wharf.  The  rain,  at  the  time, 
was  driven  with  such- force,  as  to  injure  the  skin,  and  was  so  thick 
as  to  prevent  a  view  of  any  object  "much  beyond  the  head  of  the 
pier.  The  prospect  was  majestic  beyond  description— the  gigan- 
tic waves  rolling  onward,  seemed  as  if  they  would  defy  all  obstruc- 
tion, yet  as  they  broke  over  the  careenage  they  seemed  to  be  lost, 
the  surface  of  it  being  entirely  covered  with  floating  wrecks  of 
every  description.  It  was  an  undulating  body  of  lumber,  shingles, 
staves,  barrels,  trusses  of  hay,  and  every  kind  of  merchandise  of 
a  buoyant  nature.  f  Two  vessels  only  were  afloat  within  the  pier, 
but  numbers  could  be  seen  which  had  been  capsized  or  thrown  on 
their  beam-ends  in  shallow  water. 
8 


154  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

"On  reaching  the  summit  of  the  cathedral  tower,  to  whichever 
point  of  the  compass  the  eye  was  directed,  a  grand  but  distressing 
picture  of  ruins  presented  itself;  the  whole  face  of  the  country 
was  laid  waste,  no  sign  of  vegetation  was  apparent,  except  here 
and  there  small  patches  of  a  sickly  green.  The  surface  of  the 
ground  appeared  as  if  fire  had  run  through  the  land,  scorching 
and  burning  up  the  productions  of  the  earth ;  the  few  remaining 
trees  stripped  of  their  boughs  and  foliage,  wore  a  cold  and  wintery 
aspect,  and  the  numerous  seats  in  the  environs  of  Bridgetown, 
formerly  concealed  arnid  thick  groves,  were  now  exposed  and  in 
ruins.  From  the  direction  in  which  the  cocoanut  and  other  trees 
were  prostrated  next  to  the  earth,  the  first  that  fell  must  have  been 
blown  down  by  a  N.N.E.  wind  ;  but  far  the  greater  number  were 
rooted  up,  by  the  blast  from  the  N.W." 

And  here  your  minds  will  naturally  recur  to  the  hurricane 
which  I  have  described,  from  the  account  furnished  me  by  Major 
Lachlan,  which  originated  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  in  May, 
when  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  but  78°,  and  as  the  sky  was 
overcast  for  some  hours  previously,  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
must  have  been  much  less.  And  there,  as  in  the  central  belt, 
there  was  no  contrast  of  temperature,  absolutely  NONE,  between 
the  assumed  vortex  and  the  surrounding  air.  These  examples 
might  be  multiplied  indefinitely.  It  is  incomprehensible  to  me 
how  any  mind  which  is  honest  with  itself,  can  continue  to  assert 
that  such  effects  are  attributable  to  uprising  air,  moved  by  the 
mechanical  effect  of  heat  at  84°  and  78°  Fahrenheit,  with  a  sur- 
rounding atmosphere  of  the  same  temperature. 

And  in  the  third  place,  I  assert  that  all  attempts  to  prove  di- 
rectly, or  analogically,  that  there  is  such  a  vortex,  have  been 
utter  failures.  No  man  has  ever  discovered  one.  In  1834,  Prof. 
Espy  advanced  the  theory  that  an  ascensive  force  was  given  to 
the  air,  in  which  the  vapor  of  water  was  condensed,  by  the  es- 
cape of  the  latent  heat  of  the  vapor.  This  theory  assumes,  first, 
that  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  exists  in  the  form  of  diffused 
steam.  That  is  a  fallacy.  Vapor  exists  in  the  atmosphere  in  a 
state  of  combination  with  one  or  more  of  its  elements.  Cold  will 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  1)5 

condense  it  into  mist,  but  not  into  cloud.  Electricity,  passed 
through  air  saturated  with  vapor,  will  produce  cloud.  Human 
ingenuity  may  produce  water  and  mist  by  cold,  but  a  vesicular 
cloud,  reflecting  light,  has  been  produced  by  no  agent  but  electric- 
ity. Second,  the  heat  assumed  by  Prof.  Espy  to  be  liberated  by 
condensation  has  never  been  found  in  a  cloud  or  its  vicinity,  al- 
though in  numberless  instances  the  clouds  have  been  penetrated 
by  aeronauts,  and  have  surrounded  and  enveloped  travelers  upon 
mountains.  In  the  third  place,  no  cloud,  however  dense,  or  how- 
ever suddenly  formed,  has  ever  been  seen  to  rise  above  the  story 
in  which  it  formed  or  to  which  it  belonged.  I  have  watched  them 
ever  since  the  theory  of  Mr.  Espy  was  started,  and  have  never 
been  able  to  discover  it  in  a  single  instance.  It  is  within  the 
observation  of  every  man,  that  the  densest  fogs  form  suddenly  in 
the  morning  hours  of  night,  to  the  height  of  one  or  two  hundred 
feet  from  the  earth,  and  no  heat  is  evolved  and  no  ascent  takes 
place.  The  high  fog  forms  at  the  same  hour,  visibly — with  a 
density  and  depth  sufficient  to  obscure  the  sun  as  perfectly  as 
any  layer  of  cloud  can  do,  and  there  it  icmains  without  being  ele- 
vated by  any  "tremendous  power,"  which  the  Espyan  theory  and 
Prof.  Henry  assume  must  be  developed  in  it.  So  of  the  scud 
which  form  and  float  in  the  surface  wind ;  you  may  see  them 
forming  and  charging  till  they  occupy  very  considerable  space, 
but  you  discover  no  ascent.  And  so  of  an  immense  cumulo-stratus 
towering  high  as  a  thunder-head,  its  base  settling  down  into  the 
first  story,  and  sometimes  near  the  earth,  black,  dense,  dropping 
rain  in  sheets,  but  never  ascending.  Prof.  Hemy  amused  his 
Springfield  audience  by  a  large  picture  of  a  cumulus  thunder- 
cloud, with  arrows  representing  an  upward  current  in  the  cloud. 
The  picture  was  borrowed  from  Prof.  Espy.  The  Prof,  thought 
he  had  established  the  fact  that  there  was  an  upward  current  in 
such  a  cloud,  but  he  did  not  attempt  to  tell  his  hearers  why  the 
wl  ole  cloud  did  not  go  up.  The  theory  he  was  advocating,  as- 
sumes that  the  latent  heat  is  given  out  as  the  result  of  condensa- 
tion. It  must  then  be  given  out  wherever  there  is  condensation, 
and  therefore  in  every  part  of  the  cloud  and  according  to  the  com- 


156  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

pleteness  of  the  condensation.  Why  then  is  not  the  entire  dense, 
black  mass  shot  up  by  the  "tremendous  power"  which  it  is 
claimed  must  then  and  there  be  developed?  Why  does  not  the 
hurricane-cloud,  which  in  its  incipiency  is  but  an  extensive  thun- 
der shower,  and  which  forms  in  the  very  focus  of  the  central  belt, 
shoot  up,  impelled  by  its  own  developed  tremendous  power,  aided 
by  the  suction  of  the  assumed  vortex  above,  al?o  acting  with  the 
same  supposed  '•  tremendous  power  ?"  How  does  it  get  away  from 
the  vortex  and  its  own  ascensive  force  developed  by  condensa- 
tion ?  To  these  questions,  and  many  others  of  equal  pertinency 
which  might  be  put,  no  answer,  consistent  with  the  theory,  ever 
has  been  or  ever  can  be  given.  We  SEE  and  we  KNOW,  or  MAY 
SEE  and  KNOW,  that  clouds,  whether  in  dense  masses  or  in  ex- 
tensive, deep  strata,  are  never  affected  by  any  such  tremendous 
power,  and  that  the  assumption  is  false.  Mr.  Redfield  was  a  con- 
stant, careful,  and  close  observer,  and  he  always  admitted  as  the 
result  of  his  observation — although  the  theory  of  a  vortex  would 
have  favored  his  views,  that  all  considerable  storms  were  over- 
laid by  an  extensive  field  of  stratus  cloud.  The  following  is  one 
of  his  admissions,  and  I  cite  it  again  here : 

"  In  nearly  all  great  storms  which  are  accompanied  with  rain, 
there  appear  two  distinct  classes  of  clouds,  one  of  which,  com- 
prising the  sto:  m  scuds  in  the  active  portion  of  the  gale,  has 
already  been  noticed.  Above  this  is  an  extended  stratum  of 
stratus  cloud,  which  is  found  moving  with  the  general  or  local 
current  of  the  lower  atmosphere  which  overlies  the  slorm.  It 
covers  riot  only  the  area  of  rain,  but  often  extends  greatly  beyond 
this  limit,  over  a  part  of  the  dry  portion  of  the  storm,  partly  in  a 
broken  or  detached  state.  This  stratus  cloud  is  often  concealed 
from  view  by  the  nimbus  and  scud  clouds,  in  the  rainy  portion  of 
the  storm,  but  by  careful  observations  may  be  sufficiently  noticed 
to  determine  the  general  uniformity  of  its  specific  course,  and 
approximately,  its  general  elevation." 

Mr.  Espy  was  a  laborious  and  pains-taking  investigator,  and 
did  good  service  by  his  investigations,  although  he  could  not  es- 
tablish, his  theory.  He  well  knew  that  the  scud  which  run  in 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  157 

the  surface  wind  of.  a  storm,  must  ascend  the  vortex,  if  there  was 
one,  with  the  wind  in  which  they  float,  and  by  their  means  the 
existence  of  the  vortex  could  be  discovered.  He  doubtless 
watched  for  such  vortex  and  found  it  not.  If  one  had  ever  been 
discovered,  we  should  have  heard  of  it.  No  man,  living  or  dead, 
has  ever  seen  or  discovered  an  existing  fact  indicating  the  truth 
of  the  theory.  Mr.  Wise,  the  aeronaut,  on  one  occasion,  found 
an  upward  current  in  a  thunder  cloud,  but  there  was  a  downward 
current  in  the  same  cloud,  and  the  cloud  did  not  rise.  He,  and  all 
other  aeronauts,  have  found  the  strata  of  clouds  moving  horizon- 
tally in  their  places,  and  have  passed  through  and  above  them. 

Again,  in  the  fourth  place,  it  is  settled  by  experiment  at  the 
Peak  of  TeneriiFe,  that  the  N.E.  trade-wind  at  that  point,  upon 
the  Atlantic,  is  9,000  feet  deep,  when  the  north  line  of  the  cen- 
tral belt  is  14°  to  the  south.  The  depth  of  the  current  cannot 
be  supposed  to  be  less,  and  may  be  more,  when  it  reaches  that 
belt.  Indeed,  if  it  blows  obliquely  upward,  as  is  claimed,  it 
must  be  much  more.  And  this  vast  current,  it  is  claimed,  is 
created  and  continued  by  suction,  and  enters  an  atmospheric  throat 
in  common  with  a  still  larger  current  from  the  south,  and  both 
ascend  into  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly a  "  tremendous "  operation,  requiring  "  tremendous 
power,"  but  what  power,  equally  tremendous  holds  up  the  super- 
incumbent atmosphere  at  the  throat  of  the  vortex,  and  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  this  current,  and  above  it  all  the  way,  while  it  can 
thus  be  created  and  sustained  by  the  suction  of  a  vortex  ?  Why 
does  not  the  air  rush  in  at  the  sides  of  the  vortex,  or  press  down 
at  its  throat,  or  upon  some  of  the  thousands  of  miles  where  the 
influence  of  this  suction  is  assumed  to  be  felt  ?  Can  such  a  phe- 
nomenon be  imitated  by  man  in  water  or  in  air?  I  answer,  NO, 
emphatically,  NO — it  never  has  been  done  and  it  never  can  be 
done.  It  is  impossible  and  incredible.  Moreover,  the  throat  is 
not  there,  nor  is  the  towering  column  of  the  ascending  trades 
there.  The  whole  theory  is  a  false  assumption  and  a  "  tremen- 
dous "  DELUSION;  and  of  this  thereis  still  other  evidence,  equally 
and  perfectly  satisfactory. 


158  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

I  come  now,  in  the  fifth  place,  to  another  species  of  evidence, 
that  of  actual  and  positive  observation.  It  has  long  been  my 
wish  to  pass  through  this  central  region,  and  observe  for  myself 
the  phenomena  we  are  examining,  but  it  has  not  been  conven- 
ient to  do  so.  In  the  summer  of  1867,  a  neighbor  and  personal 
friend,  Dr.  Samuel  Lynes,  took  passage  for  his  health  in  the  Pa- 
cific Mail  ship,  steamer  "China,"  from  New  York,  and  went  down 
through  the  South  Atlantic,  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  up 
the  Pacific  to  Panama,  as  I  have  already  stated.  At  my  request, 
he  observed  carefully  the  character  of  this  great  central  condition, 
and  on  his  return  gave  me  the  following  concise  abridgement  of 
his  recorded  observations.  I  was  particularly  desirous  that  he 
should  observe  the  character  of  the  trade-winds  and  their  scud, 
and  on  that  point  the  record  is  very  clear.  To  parts  of  his  ex- 
tended record  I  have  referred  in  another  place,  and  shall  here- 
after refer  to  others. 

"  Struck  the  N.E.  trade-winds  July  7,  in  Latitude  27°,  N.  Lon- 
gitude 57°  W.  They  blow  steady  day  and  night,  a  little  fresher 
at  times,  seemingly  they  freshened  as  the  moon  rose.  Scud  flying 
almost  constantly,  sometimes  so  thickly  that  one  might  call  it  cloudy. 
A  good  deal  of  the  scud  resembles  that  flying  in  our  northwest 
winds  after  a  storm.  It  flies  mostly  not  very  high.  Occasionally 
there  would  be  very  slight  showers  from  the  passing  scud.  Tem- 
perature very  uniform,  about  80°  day  and  night.  Temperature 
of  the  water  about  the  same.  Struck  the  belt  of  tropical  rains 
July  14th,  in  Lat.  10°  N.,  Long.  45°  W.  Capt.  Bradbury  esti- 
mated them  about  5  or  6  degrees  wide.  He  says  they  are  very 
narrow  on  the  coast  of  South  America,  but  wider  as  they  ap- 
proach the  coast  of  Africa.  It  rained  heavily  in  frequent  show- 
ers for  two  days,  wi  h  warm  and  light  breezes.  Temperature 
about  82°.  We  ran  through  this  belt  and  struck  the  S.E.  trades 
July  16th,  in  Lat.  4°  10  N.,  Long.  41°  W.  These  S.E.  trades 
differ  not  at  all  from  the  N.E.  in  the  phenomena  exhibited  by 
them.  They  blow  equally  day  and  night,  at  times  a  little  more 
freshly  than  others.  Scud  constantly  flying  of  the  same  charac- 
ter and  appearance  as  that  of  the  N.E.  trades. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  159 

"Temperature  of  course,  as  we  got  down  lower,  grew  less  than 
it  had  been  in  the  N  E.  trades,  this  being  the  winter  season  here 
now.  We  ran  out  of  the  S.E.  trades  about  July  26th,  in  Lat. 
25°  S.,  Long.  45°  W.  After  getting  into  the  south  polar  zone 
of  rains,  it  corresponded  with  your  diagram,  that  is,  we  did  not  get 
much  or  heavy  rains  until  about  Lat.  32°  30'  S.,  then  the  rains 
were  often  and  heavy,  with  frequent  lightning  and  thunder,  until 
we  reached  Lat.  41°  S.  From  thence  to  Cape  Virgins  and 
through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  the  weather  was  unpleasant  with 
frequent  rain  and  snow  squalls,  and  a  more  of  less  overcast  con- 
dition of  the  sky.  Thermometer  was  at  the  lowest  in  the  Straits 
at  bO°.  The  prevailing  winds  about  the  end  of  South  America 
are  northwest  and  southwest,  and  on  leaving  the  Straits  at  the 
west  end,  N.W.  winds  are  very  frequent  and  strong.  We  struck 
tha  S.E.  trades  on  the  west  coast  of  houth  America,  August  loth, 
at  about  Lat.  33°  S.,  Long.  77°  W.  The  characteristics  of  the 
S.E.  trades  in  the  Pacific  very  much  resemble  those  of  the  At- 
lantic. I  saw  no  special  difference.  The^  continued  steady  day 
and  night  from  light  to  fresh,  rather  fresher  at  night.  Scud  fly- 
ing constantly,  and  of  the  same  appearance  as  on  the  east  side. 
We  ran  out  of  the  S.E.  trades  in  about  Lat.  3°  S.,  and  struck  the 
belt  of  S.W.  monsoons  with  frequent  showers,  which  followed  us 
to  Panama,  Lat.  9°  N.  We  had  not  much  rain  till  we  were  in 
Lat.  3°  N.  Temperature  of  air  and  water  about  80°.  The  S.E. 
trades  were  very  cool  all  the  way  up,  ranging  at  no  time  above 
65°." 

The  foregoing  statement  conforms  to  the  record  kept  by  Dr. 
Lynes  and  that  of  Capt.  Bradbury,  and  is  undoubtedly  a  true 
statement.  It  shows  the  trades  to  be  continual,  and  that  fact 
calls  for  a  continual  vortex  and  uninterrupted  rain  to  answer  the 
requirements  of  the  Halley  and  Espyan  theories.  There  is  abun- 
dant other  evidence  that  the  rain  of  the  central  belt  is  not  contin- 
uous, but  in  showers,  mainly  in  the  afternoon  and  night.  Let  us 
look  at  this  also  as  we  proceed. 

Commencing  with  Nicaragua,  in  Central  America,  which  lies 
near  the  northern  limit  of  the  central  belt  in  summer,  we  have 


1GJ  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

the  evidence  of  Mr.  Squier,  in  his  work  upon  that  country,  pub- 
lished in  1863.  There,  according  to  Mr.  Squier,  the  belt  arrives 
from  the  south,  and  the  rainy  season  commences  in  May.  From 
page.  30th  I  take  the  following  extract ':  '4  The  year  is  divided, 
rather  anomalously  to  the  stranger,"  into  two  seasons,  the  wet  and 
the  dry ;  the  first  of  which  is  called  Winter  and  the  latter  Summer. 
The  wet  season  commences  in  May,  and  lasts  until  November, 
during  which  time,  but  usually  near  the  commencement  or  close, 
rains  of  some  days  duration  are  of  occasional  occurrence,  and 
showers  are  common,  but  do  not  often  happen  except  late  in  the 
afternoon,  (commencing  about  4  o'clock,)  or  in  the  night." 

All  the  rains  described  by  Mr.  Squier  in  his  book  were  from 
showers.  These  showers  occur  occasionally  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Coast  Range,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  San  Juan,  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  when  the  scud  of  the  N.E.  trades  are  enlarged  or 
coalesce  in  passing  over  the  mountains.  All  the  rains  described 
by  Mr.  Squier  were  from  thunder-showers  formed  and  moving  in 
the  N.E.  trades.  A  few  extracts  will  illustrate  this.  Speaking  of 
a  night  on  Lake  Nicaragua,  he  says  : 

"  The  night  was  wonderfully  still,  we  could  distinctly  hear  the 
tinkling  of  guitars  at  the  fort,  at  least  three  miles  distant,  inter- 
rupted by  bursts  of  gay  laughter,  until  a  late  hour.  Before 
I  slunk  under  the  chopa,  however,  clouds  began  to  gather  in  the 
N.E.,  lighted  up  momentarily  by  flashes  of  lightning,  while  fitful 
gusts  of  wind  veering  in  every  quarter,  betokened  the  approach 
of  a  thunder  storm.  A  little  past  midnight  we  were  all  roused 
in  a  summary  manner,  by  a  dash  of  water  full  in  our  faces,  fol- 
lowed the  next  instant  by  the  lurching  of  the  boat,  which  tum- 
bled passengers,  arms,  books,  and  whatever  was  moveable,  all  in 
a  heap  together "  (page  123.) 

. .  "  It  was  just  sunset  when  we  entered  the  streets  of  Chichigalpa. 
A- heavy  thunder-storm  was  piling  up  its  black  volumes  behind 
the  •; volcanoes  in  the  east;  arid:  the  calm  and  silence  which  precede 
the  tempest  rested  upon  the  plain.  The  winds  were  still,  and  the 
leaves'  hung  motionless  on  the  "trees.  It  came  down  from  the 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  161 

mountains  with  the  majesty  of  an  ocean,  poured  along  their  trem- 
bling sides."  (page  3.)1.) 

lie  also  speaks  of  the  passage  of  the  showers  on  either  side  of 
him  and  says : 

"  All  that  night,  thunder-storms,  like  invading  columns,  swept 
over  the  lake  around  us,  but  we  fell  in  the  course  of  none  of  them. 
They  all  seemed  to  linger  against  the  high  volcanes,  on  the  op- 
posite (southwestern)  shores  of  the  lake,  as  if  they  would  level, 
in  their  wrath,  the  daring  rocks  which  opposed  their  progress." 

Again,  in  speaking  of  a  thunder-storm  which  was  coming  on 
from  the  northeast,  he  says : 

"  The  wind  had  sprung  up  arid  carried  the  impending  storm  to 
the  southward." 

Mr.  Squier  gives  no  register,  but  these  extracts  will  suffice  to 
show  you  the  manner  in  which  the  rains  fall,  under  the  central 
belt  of  Nicaragua. 

I  turn  now  to  some  intelligent,  particular,  and  instructive  obser- 
vations by  Mr.  A.  Fendler,  in  about  the  same  latitude,  at  Colonia 
Tovar,  in  Caracas,  a  province  of  Venezuela.  Colonia  Tovar  is 
situated  among  ihe  mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  6,500  feet  above 
the  sea,  in  Lat.  10°  26',  about  30  miles  west  of  Laguayra,  and 
12  miles  south  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  observations  of  Mr. 
Fendler  are  remarkably  particular,  and  are  tabulated  with  great 
care.  They  may  be  found  in  the  Smithsonian  report  for  1857. 
The  rainy  season  commences  there  as  in  Nicaragua,  in  May,  but 
continues  longer,  until  December.  All  their  rain  is  in  showers. 
Mr.  Fendler,  during  the  rainy  season  of  1857,  noted  down  the 
time  of  beginning  and  ending  of  these  showers  each  day.  Noth- 
ing like  long-continued  rain  appears  in  his  tables.  There  were 
sometimes  three  or  four  successive  showers  of  short  duration  in  a 
day.  As  illustrating  the  manner  in  which  these  tropical  rains  fall, 
I  copy  some  of  his  tables.  I  know  of  none  more  perfect  or 
instructive. 

Look  as  a  sample,  and  a  fair  one,  at  a  page  of  the  record  for  the 
first  part  of  August,  the  middle  of  the  rainy  season,  and  observe 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  rain.  Remember  this  was  under 


162 


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THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  163 

the  center  of  the  belt,  6,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  at 
the  very  spot  and  level  where  the  continuous  rain  should  be,  and 
ihe  vortex  discoverable,  and  neither  are  discovered.  The  rains  are 
all  in  short  showers,  and  22  out  of  26  in  the  afternoon. 

Now  look  at  a  table  of  the  course  of  the  clouds  during  all  the 
months  that  the  central  belt  of  rains  was  over  him.  The  clouds, 
for  aught  that  he  appears  to  have  discovered,  moved  horizontally. 
It  could  not  have  been  so,  if  there  had  been  any  voriex  in  the 
belt.  THAT,  you  and  /very  well  know,  whatever  professed  me- 
teorologists may  say  about  it.  Nor  can  we  "  wink  so  hard  "  as 
not  to  see  that  the  southeast  trade  was  blowing  during  the  seven 
months,  as  a  prevalent  wind,  just  as  it  does  everywhere,  and  with 
no  more  variable  winds.  In  those  tables,  and  in  extracts  which  I 
shall  hereafter  make,  you  have  the  evidence  of  an  intelligent, 
acute  observer  "  on  the  spot,"  as  we  say,  up  in  the  belt,  and  there 
all  the  time  while  the  belt  was  passing.  Prof.  Henry  may  doubt 
his  word,  or  think  his  statement  unworthy  of  notice.  He  did  dis- 
regard them  in  his  Patent  Office  compilations,  but  you  and  I, 
reader,  must  credit  and  regard  them,  especially  when  we  find  them 
corroborated  by  all  other  practical  observers.  And  if  regarded 
they  are  conclusive. 

I  next  refer  to  the  observations  of  Lieut.  Herndon,  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Amazon.  Lieuts.  Herndon  and  Gibbon  were  ordered 
to  explore  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  in  1850,  from  Lima, 
Peru,  to  Para,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  At  Tarma,  on  the 
Andes,  Lieut.  Gibbon  separated  from  the  party  and  turned  south 
to  Cochabamba,  and  from  thence  down  the  Madeira  river  to  the 
Amazon,  while  Lieut.  Herndon  struck  its  head-waters  and  de- 
scended directly  to  the  sea.  There  is  much  that  is  instructive  in 
his  narrative.  The  rainy  belt  passed  twice  over  him.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  had  an  unusual  acquaintance  with  meteorology, 
and  his  register  seems  to  have  been  kept  with  great  care  and  par- 
ticularity, and  to  be  reliable.  It  commences  at  Pilcomayo,  10,500 
feet  above  the  sea,  in  July,  1851,  and  continues  until  his  arrival 
at  Para,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  in  May,  1852.  Occasional 
showers  were  experienced  as  he  descended  the  mountains,  in  July 


164 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


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THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  iC5 

and  August,  while  the  rain  belt  was  at  the  north,  and  he  was 
upon  the  river  Hualaga,  and  the  upper  waters  of  the  Amazon. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Nauta,  on  the  Amazon,  in  September,  1851, 
the  belt  reached  him  in  its  descent  to  the  south.  On  the  9th  of 
that  month,  he  writes  respecting  the  rainy  season  as  follows : 

"  We  have  had  a  great  deal  of  cloudy  weather  and  rain  since 
we  have  been  upon  the  Amazon,  and  it  is  now  near  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rainy  season  at  this  place.  No  one  suffers 
from  heat,  though  this  is  probably  the  hottest  season  of  the  year ; 
the  air  is  loaded  with  moisture,  and  heavy  squalls  of  wind  and 
rain  sweep  over  the  country  almost  every  day.  In  the  dry  months, 
from  the  last  of  February  to  the  first  of  September,  a  constant 
and  heavy  breeze  blows,  nearly  all  day,  against  the  stream  of  the 
river ;  the  wind,  at  all  seasons,  is  generally  easterly,  but  is,  at 
this  time,  more  fitful  and  liable  to  interruption ;  so  that  sail-boats 
bound  up,  make,  at  this  season,  the  longest  passages." 

From  Nauta,  he  diverged  to  the  south,  up  the  Ucayuli  to  Sar- 
ayacu,  which  he  reached  October  18th.  Of  that  he  says  :  "We 
had  rain  nearly  every  day  that  we  were  there,  but  it  was  in  pass- 
ing showers  alternating  with  the  hot  sun." 

General  expressions  of  travelers  are  not  so  reliable  as  a  rec- 
ord carefully  and  intelligibly  kept  from  day  to  day.  The  me- 
teorological record  of  Lieut.  Herndon  is  of  that  character,  and 
the  only  reliable  record  of  the  kind  ever  kept  in  Central  South 
America  and  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  and  published,  to  my 
knowledge.  ' 

The  record  furnishes  conclusive  evidence  that  upon  Central 
South  America,  and  in  the  broad  valley  of  the  Amazon,  while 
the  Central  belt  is  passing  over  it  to  the  south,  nothing  like  contin- 
uous rain  for  days  is  experienced.  Rain  even  through  a  [single 
day,  is. recorded  but  once.  Nearly  all;  the"  rain  which  falls  from 
it,  falls  in  showers  during  the  afternoon  or  night. '  Except  in  a 
very  few;  instances,1  cirrus  and  cirro-stratus  clouds  were  observed 
in  the  morning,  cumulus,  and  ::cumulo-stratus;  clouds  in  the  after- 
noon and  night.  Sometimes, '_but  .very  rarely,  the  rain  of  the 
night  continued  into  the  forenoon  of  the  next  day. 


168  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

But  to  be  more  particular  ;  from  Sept.  10th,  when  he  arrived 
at  Nauta,  until  January  1st,  1852,  making  112  days,  there  were 
recorded  nine  mornings  as  clear,  and  of  these,  one  only  occurred 
in  October,  and  none  between  the  middle  of  October  and  the  mid- 
dle of  November,  when  the  center  of  the  belt  was  over  him. 
During  the  same  period,  there  were  thirteen  mornings  when  there 
was  rain,  arid  in  seven  of  those,  the  rain  was  a  continuation  of 
that  which  commenced  in  the  night  and  ceased  early  in  the  fore- 
noon. During  the  whole  period  of  112  days,  there  were  but  six 
days  in  which  rain  commenced  in  the  forenoon. 

From  this  it  clearly  appears  that  as  a  rule,  under  the  central 
belt  of  rains  upon  the  Amazon  as  at  Colonia  Tovar,  the  rain  from 
that  belt  falls  in  heavy  showers  of  short  continuance,  occurring  in 
the  afternoon  or  night. 

I  refer  in  the  next  place  to  the  record  of  Lieut.  Gibbon.  Pass- 
ing southeast  from  Tarma,  lat.  11°  25  S.,  across  the  ridges  of  the 
Andes,  he  descended  to  Lake  Titicaca,  and  from  thence  to  Cocha- 
bamba,  in  lat.  18°  S.,  where  he  arrived  in  December.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  his  journey  he  thus  speaks  of  the  weather : 

"  Our  course  is  to  the  eastward.  The  snow-capped  mountains 
are  in  sight  to  the  west.  Temperature  of  a  spring,  48°  ;  air,  44°. 
Lightning  flashes  all  around  us  ;  as  the  wind  whirls  from  N.E.  to 
S.W.,  rain  and  snow-flakes  become  hail,  half  the  size  of  peas. 
Thunder  roars  and  echoes  through  the  mountains ;  the  mules 
hang  their  heads  and  travel  slowly ;  the  thinly  clad  aboriginal 
walks  shivering,  as  he  drives  the  train  ahead ;  the  dark  cumulus 
cloud  seems  to  wrap  itself  around  us."  (July  18th,  1851.) 

As  he  passed  down  the  mountains  in  a  S.E.  course,  he  struck 
the  S.E.  trades,  and  thus  speaks  of  them ; 

"  The  southeast  winds  that  we  meet  here,  come  across  the  South 
Atlantic  ocean ;  passing  over  the  lowlands,  they  strike  against 
these  mountains.  Rising  from  the  vapors  of  the  sea,  they  are 
wet,  but  after  traveling  over  dry  lands,  their  dampness  is  distrib- 
uted on  the  soil,  and  there  springs  up  a  growth  of  forest  trees  and 
wild  flowers,  which  otherwise  would  be  burnt  down  by  the  fiery 
rays  of  the  sun.  By  the  time  the  winds  reach  these  lofty  moun- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  1G7 

tains,  they  are  comparatively  dry.  The  little  dampness  remain- 
ing in  them,  meeting  with  the  cold  atmosphere  of  the  mountain- 
peaks,  freezes  and  falls  in  the  shape  of  snow  or  hail." 

Lieut.  Gibbon  arrived  at  Cochabamba,  on  the  1 3th  of  Decem- 
ber, and  remained  until  May.  The  central  belt  of  rains  did  not 
reach  that  place  until  after  he  did,  and  then  the  rain  was  not  con- 
tinuous, but  mainly  in  thunder-showers.  His  register  is  imper- 
fect in  not  giving  the  time  of  commencement,  continuance,  or  end- 
ing of  the  showers,  but  there  were  many  days  without  them,  or 
any  rain.  He  remained  at  Cochabamba  until  May,  when  he  trav- 
eled northward  down  the  Madeira  river  to  the  Amazon.  Of  his 
journey  to  the  North  he  thus  speaks  : 

"Our  route  from  Tarma  to  Oruro  was  south.  We  traveled 
ahead  of  the  sun.  In  December  when  we  arrived  in  Cochabamba, 
the  sun  had  just  passed  us.  As  soon  as  he  did  so,  the  rains  de- 
scended heavily  on  this  side  of  the  ridge ;  it  was  impossible  to  pro- 
ceed. The  roads  were  flooded,  the  ravines  impassable,  and  the 
arrieras  put  off  their  journey  until  the  dry  season  had  commenced. 
After  the  sun  passed  the  zenith  of  Cochabamba,  and  had  fairly 
moved  the  rain-belt  after  him  toward  the  north,  then  we  came 
out  from  under  shelter,  and  are  now  walking  behind  the  rain-belt 
in  dry  weather,  while  the  inhabitants  are  actively  employed  in 
tending  their  crops." 

I  turn  now  to  the  continent  of  Africa,  and  the  observations  of 
the  traveler,  Livingstone.  I  alluded  (page  141)  to  the  fact  that 
when  he  was  about  to  leave  Linyanti,  lat.  18°  S.,  he  was  urged 
by  the  chief  of  the  Makololo,  to  wait  for  the  arrival  of  the  rainy 
season,  before  commencing  his  journey  across  the  continent  east- 
ward to  the  Indian  Ocean.  But  he  had  previously  twice  passed 
through  the  central  belt  of  rains,  during  his  journey  from  Lin- 
yanti to  Londa,  on  the  west  coast  in  1853.  The  meteorological 
record  which  he  kept  during  that  journey  was  lost,  but  a  few  ex- 
tracts from  his  narrative,  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  point  we  are 
considering.  On  his  way  up  the  Zambesi  in  November,  before 
the  arrival  of  the  central  belt  of  rains  from  the  north,  and  when 
at  Gonye  Falls,  in  lat.  1G°  40'  he  thus  speaks  of  the  dry  season : 


168  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTKM. 

.  «  November  30th,  1853,  at  Gonye  Falls,  No  rain  has  fallen 
here,  so  it  is  excessively  hot.  The  trees  have  put  on  their  gayest 
dre-s,  and  many  flowers  adorn  the  landscape,  yet  the  heat  makes 
all  the  leaves  droop  at  midday,  and  look  languid  for  want  of  rain. 
If  the  country  increases  as  much  in  beauty  in  front  as  it  has  done 
within  the  last  four  degrees  of  latitude,  it  will  be  indeed  a  lovely 
land.  We  all  felt  great  lassitude  in  traveling.  The  atmosphere 
is  oppressive  both  in  cloud  and  sunshine.  The  evaporation  from 
the  river  must  be  excessively  great,  and  I  feel  as  if  the  fluids  of 
the  system  joined  in  the  general  motion  of  watery  vapor  upward, 
as  enormous  quantities  of  water  must  be  drank  to  supply  its  place." 

On  the  eastern  sides  of  the  Andes  we  have  seen  that  showers 
occasionally  occur  during  the  dry  season.  The  same  is  true  of 
Africa  under  the  Equator,  where  the  country  is  elevated,  as  Du 
Chaillu  experienced  during  his  second  journey.  But  upon  the 
flat  plains  of  Southern  Africa,  where  Livingstone  was  then  travel- 
ing, showers  never  occur  in  the  dry  season. 

But  Livingstone  was  traveling  to  the  north  up  the  Zambesi, 
and  the  belt  of  rains  was  descending  to  the  south,  and  early  in 
December  they  met  at  Naliele,  in  lat.  15°  24'. 

"  The  rains  began  while  we  were  at  Naliele ;  this  is  much  later 
than  usual ;  but  though  the  Barotse  valley  has  been  in  need  of 
rain,  the  people  never  lack  abundance  of  food.  The  showers  are 
refreshing,  but  the  air  feels  hot  and  close,  the  thermometer,  how- 
ever, in  a  cool  hut,  stands  only  at  84°.  The  access  of  the  exter- 
nal air  to  any  spot  at  once  raises  its  temperature  above  90°.  A 
new  attack  of  fever  here  caused  excessive  languor ;  but  as  I  am 
already  getting  tired  of  quoting  my  fevers,  and  never  liked  to 
read  travels  myself  where  much  was  said  about  the  illnesses  of 
the  traveler,  I  shall  henceforth  endeavor  to  say  little  about  them." 

From  that  time  he  speaks  of  heavy  rains  and  showers,  mostly 
in  the  afternoon  and  night,  until  his  arrival  at  Londa,  but  nowhere 
of  continued  and  unintermitted  rains.  On  the  16th  of  January, 
he  arrived  at  Cabompo,  lat.  12°  37',  and  remained  until  the  24th. 
As  the  rains  had  been  moving  to  the  south,  and  he  to  the  north, 
passing  each  other,  he  was  now  near  the  northern  edge  of  the  belt, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  169 

and  of  course  had  the  winds  from  the  north,  and  he  thus  speaks 
of  the  rain  and  wind. 

"  One  cannot  get  away  quickly  from  these  chiefs ;  they  like  to 
have  the  honor  of  strangers  residing-  in  their  villages.  Here  we 
had  an  additional  cause 'of  delay  in  frequent  rains  ;  twenty-four 
hours  never  elapsed  without  heavy  showers  ;  everything  is  affect- 
ed by  the  dampness  ;  surgical  instruments  become  all  rusty  ;  cloth- 
ing mildewed  and  shoes  mouldy ;  my  little  tent  was  now  so  rotten 
and  so  full  of  small  holes,  that  every  smart  shower  caused  a  fine 
mist  to  descend  on  my  blanket,  and  made  me  fain  to  cover  the 
head  with  it.  Heavy  dews  lay  on  everything  in  the  morning,  even 
inside  the  tent ;  there  is  only  a  short  time  of  sunshine  in  the  af- 
ternoon, and  even  that  is  so  interrupted  by  thunder-showers  that 
we  cannot  dry  our  bedding.  The  winds  coming  from  the  north 
always  bring  heavy  clouds  and  rain ;  in  the  south  the  only  heavy 
rains  noticed  are  those  which  come  from  the  N.E.  or  E.  The 
thermometer  falls  as  low  as  72°,  when  there  is  no  sunshine,  though 
when  the  weather  is  fair,  the  protected  thermometer  generally 
rises  as  high  as  82°,  even  in  the  mornings  and  evenings." 

Livingstone  arrived  upon  the  western  coast  at  about  9°  S.  lat., 
in  May.  The  central  belt  of  rains  had  passed  him  again,  and 
gone  to  the  north.  In  December  following,  he  again  left  for  Lin- 
yanti,  and  again  the  belt  of  rains  passed  over  him  in  its  transit  to 
the  south.  On  page  80  he  thus  speaks  of  it : 

"  We  had  now  rain  every  day,  and  the  sky  seldom  presented 
that  cloudless  aspect  and  clear  blue  so  common  in  the  dry  lands 
of  the  south.  The  heavens  are  often  overcast  by  large,  white, 
motionless  masses,  which  stand  for  hours  in  the  same  position  and 
the  intervening  spaces  are  filled  with  a  milk-and-water-looking 
haze." 

He  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any  distinct  conception  of  the 
nomenclature  of  clouds  or  the  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  but  in  this 
paragraph  he  has  represented  the  cumuli,  and  the  milk-and-water 
looking  cirrus  seen  through  their  spaces  and  above  them.  He 
was  at  that  time  in  the  very  center  of  the  rainy  belt. 
i  That  belt  moved  to  the  north  again  in  spring,  and  the  latter 


1<0  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

part  of  his  journey  to  Linyanti  was  concluded  during  the  dry 
season.  There  he  waited  for  the  rainy  season  again,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  and  then  left  for  the  eastern  coast  of  the  continent, 
passing  the  fourth  time  across  the  country  while  the  belt  of  rains 
was  over  it.  Here  again,  he  says  of  the  rains : 

"  These  rains  were  from  the  east,  and  the  clouds  might  be  seen 
on  the  hills  exactly  as  the  table  cloth  on  Table  Mountain." 

There  is  in  the  Wilkes  Exploring  expedition,  a  view  of  Cape- 
town and  Table  Mountain,  with  the  cloth  on.  If  that  is  a  correct 
representation,  the  cloth  does  not  differ  in  any  material  respect 
from  the  foggy  patches  of  scud  which  are  often  seen  on  our  high 
hills,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  forming  as  the  moist  current 
passes  over  them,  and  dissolving  again  after  the  particular  portion 
passes  away  from  the  influence  of  the  hill  or  mountain  top. 

On  this  journey  he  nowhere  speaks  of  continuous  rain  for  a 
longer  period  than  several  hours,  and  no  material  difference  in  the 
character  of  the  belt  is  described.  It  moved  to  the  north  and  left 
him  in  dry  weather  again,  before  he  reached  the  eastern  coast  at 
Quillimaine. 

In  the  works  of  Du  Chaillu,  describing  his  discoveries  in  equa- 
torial Africa,  we  have  like  descriptions  of  these  rains.  During 
their  absence  at  the  north,  they  have  the  same  dry  season  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  equator,  as  elsewhere.  Their  dry  season  begins 
in  May,  and  ends  when  the  rains  return,  in  September.  During 
his  last  journey  into  the  interior,  he  reached  an  elevated  section 
of  the  country,  and  there,  as  under  like  circumstances  in  South 
America,  occasional  showers  are  experienced  in  the  dry  seasons 
of  the  year.  There,  as  elsewhere  upon  the  continent,  the  showers 
passed  from  the  east  to  the  west,  and  the  rain  was  all  in  showers. 

The  natives  called  the  elevated  country  to  the  east  of  them"  the 
mother  of  rains"  conveying  the"  same  idea  that  the  natives  of 
Brazil  did  to  Prof.  Agassiz,  when  they  said  "  the  path  of  the  sun  is 
the  path  of  the  storm" 

We  may  now  get  an  idea  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  belt 
of  rains  moves  over  the  continent  in  its  transit.  It  reaches  the 
equator,  according  to  Du  Chaillu,  early  in  September.  It  reaches 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  171 

the  Congo,  five  degrees  further  south,  about  the  latter  part  of 
September,  and  Livingstone  met  it  when  he  waited  for  it  at  Lin- 
yanti,  in  lat.  18°  17'  20",  the  27th  of  October.  But  as  we  shall 
hereafter  see,  it  varies  in  different  years. 

I  refer  next  and  again  to  the  record  of  Dr.  Barth,  in  North 
Africa.  The  Dr.  left  Tripoli  in  March,  1850,  and  journeying  to 
the  south,  crossed  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  arriving  at  Kukawa, 
near  lake  Tsad,  in  April  following.  This  was  the  base  of  his 
movements  and  observations  during  that  year.  From  this  base 
he  made  various  short  journeys  during  that  time,  but  they  were 
all  between  9°  30'  and  12°  30'  N.  He  kept  a  Meteorological 
Register,  and  we  have  nothing  of  the  kind  more  perfect  for  that 
part  of  the  continent.  An  occasional  brief  shower  was  experi- 
enced during  the  journey  across  the  Desert,  especially  near  its 
southern  border,  and  in  September.  At  Kukawa,  where  his  most 
important  observations  were  made,  the  rainy  season  commences 
in  May,  and  ends  in  September.  His  description  of  the  belt  of 
rains  is  substantially  like  that  of  all  the  others.  The  substance 
of  it,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  our  present  inquiry,  is  contained  in 
the  following  paragraphs  : 

"  It  is  generally  supposed  that  storms  in  the  tropical  climes 
break  forth  in  the  afternoon  or  in  the  course  of  the  night,  and 
this  certainly  is  the  general  rule ;  but  if  there  has  been  a  storm 
the  day  before,  or  during  the  night,  and  the  weather  has  not 
cleared  up,  there  can  be  no  certainty  that  it  will  not  come  on  again 
in  the  course  of  the  morning.  It  is  rather  a  rare  phenomenon 
in  these  regions  for  a  storm  to  gather  in  the  morning  on  a  clear 
sky,  but  nevertheless  the  reader  will  find  several  examples  even 
of  this,  in  my  meteorological  tables." 

This  is  in  accordance  with  the  observations  of  Herndon,  on  the 
Amazon — where  the  rain  continued  from  the  night  into  the  morn- 
ing, on  seven  days,  and  commenced  in  the  morning,  on  six  days 
out  of  112,  during  which  the  belt  was  passing  over  him.  The 
exceptions  are  few  in  both  cases,  and  prove  the  rule. 

**  Rain  was  very  plentiful  this  year,  1851,  and  I  am  sure  would, 
if  measured,  have  far  exceeded  the  quantity  found  by  Mr.  Vogel 


172  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

in  18"  4.  Indeed  there  were  twelve  very  considerable  falls  of 
rain,  during  the  month  of  August  alone,  whicn  together  probably 
exceeded  thirtjf  inches.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  moreover,  that 
the  fall  of  rain  in  Kukawa  does  not  constitute  the  rule  for  the 
region,  but  is  quite  exceptional,  owing  to  the  entire  absence  of 
trees  and  of  heights  in  the  neighborhood.  Hencs  the  statement 
of  Mr.  Vogel  in  one  of  his  letters  that  the  line  of  tropical  rains 
only  begins  south  of  Kukawa,  must  be  understood  with  some  re- 
serve, for  if  he  had  measured  the  rain  in  the  woody  country  north 
of  that  capital,  between  Dawerghu,  and  Kaliluwa,  he  would,  in 
my  opinion,  have  attained  a  very  different  result.  It  is  evident 
that  all  depends  upon  the  meaning  of  tropical  rain.  If  we  imply 
a  very  copious  fall  of  rain,  Kukawa  certainly  does  not  lie  within 
the  limits  of  tropical  rain,  but  if  we  are  to  understand  by  it  the 
regularly  returning  annual  fall  of  rain,  produced  by  the  ascend- 
ing currents  of  heated  air,  it  certainly  does.  There  was  a  very 
heavy  fall  of  rain  on  the  night  of  the  3d  of  August,  which  not 
only  swamped  our  courtyard,  but  changed  my  room,  which  lay 
half  a  foot  lower,  and  was  protected  only  by  a  low  threshold, 
into  a  little  lake,  aggravating  my  feverish  state  very  considerably, 
and  spoiling  most  of  my  things." 

In  the  following  year  Dr.  Barth  went  to  Timbuctoo,  which 
lies  to  the  north  and  west-  in  about  lat.  18°.  He  encountered  the 
rainy  season  again  in  the  summer,  and  described  it  by  saying : 
"  We  had  a  thunder-storm  almost  every  day,  followed  now  and 
then  by  a  tolerable  quantity  of  rain."  Timbuctoo  is  upon  the 
Niger,  and  there  is  a  curious  anomaly  connected  with  the  rise  of 
that  river.  Dr.  Barth  thus  alludes  to  it : 

"  Towards  the  end  of  January,  the  waters  of  the  river  reached 
their  highest  level,  exhibiting  that  marvelous  anomaly,  in  com- 
parison with  the  period  of  the  rising  of  other  African  rivers  north  of 
the  equator,  which  is  calculated  to  awaken  astonishment  in  any  man 
acquainted  with  the  subject.  For  when  he  knows  that  the  rising 
of  these  rivers  is  due  to  the  fall  of  the  tropical  rains,  he  will  nat- 
urally expect  that  the  Niger,  like  its  eastern  branch,  the  Tsad, 
or  Benuwe,  or  the  Nile,  should  reach  its  highest  level  in  August 
or  September." 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  173 

The  explanation  of  this  peculiarity  is  found  in  several  facts : 
First,  the  Niger  heads  on  the  northern  and  eastern  slopes  of  the 
mountains  of  Senegambia,  Liberia,  and  Ashantee,  in  lat.  10°  N., 
and  from  thence  runs  Northeasterly  to  Timbuctoo,  through  7°  or 
8°  of  lat.,  and  from  thence  easterly  and  southeasterly,  to  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea.  The  rains  which  raise  the  river,  therefore,  at  Tim- 
buctoo in  January,  fall  several  degrees  to  the  south  of  it.  Second, 
the  belt  of  rains  upon  the  Atlantic,  though  it  moves  up  in  sum- 
mer as  high  as  15°  N.  lat.,  does  not  move  more  than  3°  or  4° 
south  of  the  equator  in  winter.  Its  transit  upon  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Atlantic,  therefore,  is  scarcely  15°,  and  it  lingers  in 
December  and  even  into  January,  upon  the  mountains  of  Sene- 
gambia and  Ashantee  and  Western  Soudan,  while  its  transit  upon 
the  continents  of  Africa  and  America  exceeds  30°.  Third,  when 
the  belt  of  rains  is  moving  to  the  north  in  summer  it  can  derive 
little  moisture  from  the  N.E.  trades,  as  the  country  north  of  it  is 
an  extensive,  sandy  desert,  and  the  moisture  supplied  by  the  S  E. 
trades  is  intercepted  by  the  Kong  mountains  of  Western  Soudan, 
Guinea,  and  Yaraba.  When,  however,  the  belt  descends  to  the 
south  in  the  fall,  and  the  N.E.  trades  blow  into  it  from  the  then 
uncovered  and  drenched  surface  of  Soudan,  they  deposit  their 
moisture  upon  the  northern  and  eastern  slopes  of  those  mountains, 
where  the  Niger  has  its  rise,  and  fill  its  banks  so  as  to  occasion 
the  peculiar  rise  of  the  river  at  Timbuctoo,  in  the  middle  of  the 
dry  season. 

A  like  anomaly  is  found  in  India.  A  very  moderate  supply  of 
rain  falls  on  the  Deccan,  east  of  the  Ghauts,  during  the  transit  of 
the  belt  of  rains  to  the  north,  for  then  the  countries  about  the  head 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  on  which  its  N.E.  trades  then  originate, 
are  dry,  but  after  the  belt  has  been  up  over  them  in  summer,  and 
descending  has-  uncovered  them  in  the  fall,  the  N.E.  trades  blow- 
ing from  them  are  charged  with  the  evaporating  moisture  of  their 
summer  rains — and  abundantly  supply  the  Deccan  with  rain. 

From  all  this  evidence  I  think  it  entirely  certain  that  nothing 
like  that  continuous  rain,  under  the  central  belt — which  a  vortex 
in  constant  action  night  and  day  must  produce  if  the  theory  was 


174  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

true — is  to  be  found,  and  this  fact  would  be  amply  sufficient  of 
itself,  to  disprove  the  theory.  But  in  addition  we  have  the  con- 
curring evidence  of  all  travelers,  that  the  rains  of  that  belt  are 
produced  by  showers,  "  gathering,"  to  use  the  expressive  phrase 
of  Dr.  Earth,  generally  in  the  afternoon  or  night,  and  "sweeping," 
to  use  the  equally  expressive  phrase  of  Prof.  Agassiz,  along  hor- 
izontally near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  precisely  as  they  do  wiih 
us,  and  with  a  like  unperforated  layer  of  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus 
above  them.  And  in  addition  to  all  this  WTC  have  the  observa- 
tions of  Fendler,  Gibbon  and  others,  up  in  the  upper  horizontal 
trades,  even  in  the  rainy  season,  and  not  an  observed  fact,  anywliere, 
indicating  the  existence  of  a  vortex. 

Having  thus  demonstrated,  as  I  think,  that  the  theory  of  Halley, 
in  respect  to  the  existence  of  a  vortex  in  the  central  belt,  is  a  de- 
lu-ion,  it  is  obvious  that  we  must  examine  critically  the  great  belt 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  its  elements.  In  respect  to  them 
there  is  a  mass  of  evidence,  which  to  my  mind  is  entirely  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  it  is  a  stratified  and  organized  body,  consisting 
of  a  stratum  of  cirrus  and  sometimes  of  cirro-stratus  above,  a 
stratum  of  cumulus  and  cumulo-stratus  in  the  middle,  and  of  scud, 
fog  and  other  incidental  condensations,  beneath  and  at  the  surface. 

I  have  already  cited  the  graphic  description  given  by  Hum- 
bolt  of  the  appearance  of  the  central  belt  when  first  discovered 
approaching  from  the  south,  when  he  was  on  the  banks  of  the 
Orinoco,  but  I  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  it  again,  in  this  con- 
nection. 

"  When,  after  a  long  drought,  the  genial  season  of  rain  arrives, 
the  scene  suddenly  changes.  The  deep  azure  of  the  hitherto 
cloudless  sky  assumes  a  lighter  hue.  Scarcely  can  the  dark  space 
in  the  constellation  of  the  Souther  Cross  be  distinguished  at  night. 
The  mild  phosphorescence  of  the  Magellanic  clouds  fades  away. 
Even  the  vertical  stars  of  the  constellations  Aquila,  and  Ophiu- 
chus  shine  with  a  flickering  and  less  planetary  light.  Like  some 
distant  mountain,  a  single  cloud  is  seen  rising  perpendicularly  on 
the  southern  horizon.  Misty  vapors  collect  and  gradually  over- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  175 

spread  the  heavens,  while  distant  thunder  proclaims  the  approach 
of  the  vivifying  rain." 

Here  we  have  described  the  elevated  stratum  of  misty,  cirrus 
condensation  which  overlies  this  belt  of  rains,extending  far  to  the 
north  and  south  of  that  portion  where  the  rains  are  falling,  and 
becoming  cirro-stratus  nearer  the  center.  Humboldt  discovered 
it  first,  not  only  because  of  its  elevation,  but  because  of  that  ex- 
tension which  brought  it  first  into  view.  It  moved  up  and  over 
him,  dimming  his  vision  of  the  stars  and  constellations,  before  the 
rain-cloud  was  seen  on  the  southern  horizon.  And  before  the 
rain-clouds  of  the  belt  had  approached  sufficiently  near  for  their 
thunder  to  be  heard,  that  stratum  of  condensation  had  "  overspread 
the  heavens"  Here  then  we  have  frpm  Humboldt  a  description 
of  two  strata,  and  two  kinds  of  condensation  as  characteristic  of 
this  belt — the  upper  stratum  of  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus,  and  the 
cumulo-stratus,  or  thunder-clo  id  below  it. 

To  the  same  effect  are  the  observations  of  Fendler  at  Colonia 
Tovar,  modified  of  course  by  elevation.  During  the  month  of 
April  before  the  rainy  season  set  in,  when  there  was  light  rain  on 
five  days  only,  the  sky  was  often  entirely  overcast  at  7  A.M.,  and 
not  a  perfectly  clear  morning  is  recorded.  The  mean  amount  of 
cloudiness  at  that  hour,  for  the  month,  was  6/0,  while  in  May 
when  the  rainy  season  had  set  in,  and  there  was  rain  on  25  days, 
the  mean  amount  of  cloudiness  at  7  A.M.  was  8T3^,  a  difference 
of  only  1-j^. 

I  turn  now  to  the  tables  of  Herndon,  to  which  I  have  referred, 
and  see  how  perfectly  the  same  state  of  things  appears  from  his 
unstudied  but  clear  and  intelligent  description.  He  entered  upon 
the  Amazon,  on  the  4th  of  September,  when  the  belt  was  ap- 
proaching from  the  north.  His  history  of  the  mornings  from  that 
time  forth  until  the  belt  had  passed  him  on  its  way  to  the  south, 
is  a  description  of  that  upper  layer,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  cirrus, 
and  at  others  as  cirro-stratus,  as  it  assumed  one  or  the  other  form. 
On  the  15th  of  September  he  has  this  entry.  "The  first  per- 
fectly clear  morning  we  have  seen  since  entering  the  Amazon. 
At  1  P.M.  cumulus  clouds ;  showery  at  2J."  So  his  description 


176  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

of  the  clouds  at  midday  and  in  the  afternoon,  is  of  the  formation 
of  cumuli  and  cumulo-strati  which  furnish  the  showers  of  the 
afternoon  and  night.  None  of  these  cumuli  were  ever  seen  to 
ascend  into  a  vortex.  They  are  frequently  described  as  parsing 
by  to  the  southward  or  to  the  northward  of  him,  horizontally  and 
at  the  same  elevation.  .  In  this  connection  I  cite  a  brief  but  inter- 
esting description  by  Prof,  and  Mrs.  Agassiz  of  a  shower  which 
they  witnessed  upon  the  Amazon.  It  may  be  found  on  page  248 
of  "  A  journey  in  Brazil."  i 

"  October  23d.  We  left  Teffe  on  Saturday  evening  on  board 
the  Icamiaba,  which  now  seems  quite  like  a  home  to  us  ;  we  have 
passed  so  many  pleasant  hours  in  her  comfortable  quarters  since 
we  left  Para.  We  are  just  on  the  verge  of  the  rainy  season  here, 
and  almost  every  evening  during  the  past  week  has  brought  a 
thunder-storm.  The  evening  before  leaving  Teffe,  we  had  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  storms  we  have  seen  on  the  Amazon.  It  came 
sweeping  up  from  the  east;  these  squalls  always  come  from  the 
east,  and  therefore  the  Indians  say,  "  the  path  of  the  sun  is  the 
path  of  the  storm."  The  upper,  lighter  layer  of  cloud,  traveling 
faster  than  the  dark,  lurid  mass  below,  hung  over  it  with  its  white, 
fleecy  edge,  like  an  avalanche  of  snow,  just-  about  to  fall.  We 
were  all  sitting  at  the  doorstep,  watching  its  swift  approach,  and 
Mr.  Agassiz  sa'd  that  this  tropical  storm  was  the  most  accurate 
representation  of  an  avalanche  011  the  upper  Alps,  he  had  ever 
seen." 

I  have  taken  the  liberty  to  italicise  some  very .  suggestive  por- 
tions of  that  description.  The  thunder-storm  occurred  in  the 
evening,  during  the  rainy  season,  as  did  others,  .previously  expe- 
rienced. It  came  from  the  east,  sweeping,  that  -is  horizontally, 
and  neiir  the  earth,  as  .all  such  storms  do  in  that  country.  It  was 
in  October , when  the  belt  of  rains  had  arrived  from  the  north,  and 
was  passing  over,  them  to  the  south.  They  remained  upon  the 
Amazon  and  its  tributaries  until  -March,  an.d  .during  that  period 
the  entire  belt  passed  over  them, -and  they  had  full  opportunity  to 
observe  its  phenome  a.  To  their  description  of  this  storm  they 
append  a  statement  cf  the  natives,  that  "  the  path  of  the  sun  " 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  177 

and  the  "  path  of  the  storm  "  there  are  the  same,  and  record  that 
statement  for  our  instruction,  uncontradicted  and  unqualified  ;  and 
it  imports,  that  all  the  thunder-storms,  under  the  belt,  during  its 
transit  north  and  south,  sweep  in  like  manner,  horizontally,  from 
the  eastward  to  the  westward. 

And  they  also  describe  two  layers  of  cloud,  the  upper  and 
lighter  (cirrus  T>r  cirro  stratus,)  moving  more  rapidly  than  the 
dark  cumulo-stratus  below  it,  precisely  such  as  are  often  seen  as 
our  belts  of  showers  approach  from  the  northwest. 

I  have  not  the  honor  to  know  these  distinguished  travelers, 
except  as  the  world  knows  them,  by  reputation.  But  I  believe 
they  have  not  unfitted  themselves  by  a  too  ready  and  unwise 
committal  to  the  Halley  theory,  (as  too  many  have  done,)  for  the 
discovery  and  reception  of  truth  on  this  subject,  if  inconsistent 
with  that  theory  ;  and  if  I  did  know  them,  I  should  ask  whether 
they  discovered  anything,  during  the  transit  of  that  belt  over  them, 
which  indicated  that  it  was  constituted  by  a  great  ascending  vortex. 
Of  the  character  of  their  answer  I  cannot  entertain  a  doubt. 
That  brief  description  speaks  with  the  fulness  of  a  volume. 

I  have  alluded  to  the  record  of  Lieut.  Gibbon.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  December  to  the  middle  of  February,  as  appears  from  that 
record,  there  were  but  five  clear  mornings,  and  during  the  30  days 
preceding  the  arrival  of  the  belt  of  rains,  not  a  single  day  when 
it  was  not  cloudy  at  3  P.M.  The  overlying  stratum  of  cirrus 
and  cirro-stratus  must  have  extended  nearly  or  quite  10°  S.  of 
the  southern  edge  of  the  belt  of  rains.  After  that  time,  not  a 
single  clear  morning  is  recorded.  There  is  a  single  instance  on 
the  31st  of  January,  when  the  record  reads,  "blue  sky,  with 
hazy  atmosphere,"  but  that  haze  was  undoubtedly  the  cirrus  or 
cirro-stratus  of  the  overlying  stratum,  somewhat  thinner  and  more 
broken  than  usual. 

On  the  west  of  the  Andes  and  over  the  Pacific  Ocean,  that 
overlying  stratum  extends  still  farther  to  the  southward.  From 
the  statement  and  record  of  Dr.  Lyrics  it  would  seem  to  extend 
nearly  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  S.E.  trades. 

Turning  again  to  Southern  Africa,  we  have  the  evidence  upon 
9 


178  THK    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

this  point  also,  of  Livingstone,  but  as  lie  kept  no  record  which  is 
preserved,  and  had  little  knowledge  of  Meteorology,  the  evidence 
is  meagre.  It  sufficiently  appears,  however,  from  his  general 
statements  that  the  same  state  of  things  exists  there.  I  have  al- 
ready copied  a  description  (page  1G9)  of  the  two  strata  as  de- 
scribed on  his  journey  to  Londa.  In  his  journey  to  the  eastward 
from  Linyanti  to  Quillemaine,  and  on  the  27th  of  November,  in 
lat.  17°,  he  thus  writes  :  "  The  temperature  was  pleasant,  as  the 
rains  though  not  universal,  had  fallen  in  many  places.  It  was  very 
cloudy,  preventing  observations.  The  temperature  at  6  A.M.  was 
70°,  at  midday,  90°,  in  the  evening,  84°.  This  is  very  pleasant 
on  the  high  lands,  with  but  little  moisture  in  the  air." 

It  is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  he  could  get  no  observations  at 
any  time  of  the  day,  because  of  the  cloudiness,  before  the  belt  of 
rain  was  felt  in  its  force,  and  while  the  showers  were  infrequent, 
that  the  same  overlying  layer  of  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus  had  ex- 
tended south  in  advance  of  the  rains. 

After  he  had  passed  the  coast  range  of  mountains,  and  while 
descending  their  slopes  to  the  sea,  he  met  with  what  was  to  him, 
a  new  feature.  Everywhere  else  in  his  travels  he  found  the 
thunder-storms  and  showers  in  the  interior  moving  to  the  west- 
ward, but  here  they  seemed  to  him  to  move  to  the  eastward,  but 
he  was  mistaken,  as  we  can  all  understand.  Thus,  while  upon  the 
hills  in  January,  he  says :  "  The  clouds  rested  upon  the  tops  of 
the  hills,  as  they  came  from  the  eastward,  and  then  poured  down 
plenteous  showers  upon  the  valleys  below."  But  a  little  farther 
down,  on  the  29th  of  the  month,  he  says,  "  A  double  tier  of  clouds 
floated  quickly  away  to  the  west,  and  as  soon  as  they  began  to 
come  in  an  opposite  direction,  the  rain  poured  down."  The  lower 
of  the  two  tier  of  clouds  was  the  rain-bearing  cloud,  and  passed 
off  to  the  west,  with  the  layer  of  cirro-stratus  above  it,  like  that 
observed  by  Prof.  Agassiz  in  Brazil.  The  clouds  which  deceived 
him  were  scud,  lower  down  still,  running  as  we  often  see  them, 
in  opposition  to  the  path  of  the  storm,  especial'y  when  here  as 
there  the  belt  of  showers  has  passed  over  highlands.  The  tendency 
to  easterly  surface  wind  and  scud  under  a  belt  or  storm  which  has 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


179 


passed  over  the  Alleghanies,  is  well  ascertained  and  understood. 

This  superior  cloud  stratum  was  also  observed  by  Du  Chaillu, 
and  seriously  interfered  with  his  observations  when  the  cumulus 
and  cumulo-stratus  were  not  present.  This  was  especially  true 
over  the  hills  of  the  interior,  and  he  thus  speaks  of  it.  "  Up  to 
the  present  time,  May  18th,  I  have  only  twice  seen  the  sky  free 
from  cloud  since  my  arrival  at  Fernand  Vaz,  from  England." 

On  this  point  the  record  of  Dr.  Barth,  in  north  Africa,  is  very 
full  and  clear.  On  page  702,  Vol.  II.,  during  April,  1852,  and 
from  that  time  on  until  the  arrival  of  the  rains,  he  records  with 
few  exceptions,  the  morning  as  "  a  little  overcast"  and  "  thickly 
overcast"  and  after  the  arrival  of  the  belt  of  rains,  he  described  the 
gathering  of  thunder-showers  in  the  afternoon  and  evenings,  pass- 
ing sometimes  to  the  south  and  sometimes  to  the  north,  and  some- 
times over  them,  but  always  to  the  westward  horizontally,  and  gen- 
erally with  strong  or  violent  winds.  No  thunder-storms  are  record- 
ed by  any  writer,  to  my  knowledge,  of  a  more  violent  character. 

I  extract  for  a  week  from  the  26th  of  April,  1852,  to  the  2d 
of  May,  inclusive.  This  was  before  the  belt  of  rain  had  arrived, 
but  when  it  was  approaching  from  the  south. 


Date. 

Hour  of 
day. 

JJegree  in 
scale  of 
Fahr. 

1852 
April  26, 

27. 

1.45  p.m. 

101.8 

Sky  thickly  overcast,  the  sun  breaking  through 
the  clouds  at  9.30  A.M.,  the  atmosphere  remain- 
ing sultry.     In  the  afternoon  a  thunder-storm 
accompanied  by  heavy  squalls  of  wiud,  but  no 
rain. 
Atmosphere  sultry. 

28 

In  the  afternoon  a  thunder-storm  gathered  but 

29, 

brought  us  only  a  few  drops  of  rain  in  the  even- 
ing. 
The  sky  the  whole  day  overcast,  in  the  afternoon 

30, 
May  1, 



a  storm  gathered  in  the  south,  but  not  accompa- 
nied by  rain 
In  the  afternoon  a  thunder-storm  arose,  followed 
by  a  considerable  rain  the  following  night,  last- 
ing for  about  two  hours. 
Sky  overcast,  the  sun  breaking  through  the  clouds 

2, 

about  10  A.M.  but  only  for  a  few  moments      At 
4  P.M.  thick  thunder  clouds,  with  much  heat- 
lightning  but  no  rain. 
About  5.30  PM.   dark  thunder  clouds  gathered 

but  passed  by  westward. 

180  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

There  is  much  other  evidence  which  might  be  adduced  in  sup- 
port of  the  proposition,  but  I  have  not  space  for  it,  and  it  cannot 
be  necessary.  Lieut.  Maury  was  undoubtedly  right,  when  from 
the  mass  of  nautical  evidence  before  him,  he  assumed  that  there 
was  a  tropical  cloud  ring  encircling  the  earth.  Seen  from  above, 
this  layer  of  cirrus  and  cirro-stratus  does  undoubtedly  form  a  cloud 
ring,  wide  over  the  continents  and  narrower  over  the  oceans,  bro- 
ken or  attenuated  in  places  or  at  times,  it  may  be,  but  still  a  girdle 
of  cloud.  Underneath  this  cloud  ring,  and  near  the  center  of  it 
and  in  the  trade-winds,  the  scud  enlarge  and  the  showers  form, 
from  which  the  rains  descend.  And  beneath  those  showers  are 
the  incidental  and  varied  slant  winds,  which  constitute  the  squalls 
and  gales  and  hurricanes  which  are  felt  at  the  surface.  The^e 
together  constitute  the  elements  of  the  great,  permanent,  central 
atmospheric  condition. 

In  his  lecture  before  the  '•  American  Association  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  Science  "  in  August,  1859,  Prof.  Henry  endeav- 
ored to  make  a  strong  point  upon  the  assumption  that  the  trades 
could  not  pass  each  other,  and  therefore  that  when  they  met,  they 
must  ascend  and  consequently  that  there  must  be  a  vortex.  But 
there  is  nothing  in  either  the  assumption  or  the  argument.  Of 
the  manner  in  which  they  do  meet  and  pass  there  is  much  and 
satisfactory  evidence. 

In  the  first  place  we  have  the  evidence  of  those  who  have 
witnessed  the  manner  in  which  they  pass  each  other.  Mr.  Fen- 
dler  thus  saw  them  at  Colonia  Tovar.  He  says : 

"  Sometimes  the  eastern  currents  may  be  seen  in  their  gradu- 
ally ascending  but  nearly  horizontal  course,  to  meet  the  higher 
southern  currents  at  right  angles,  and  without  mixing,  to  be  de- 
flected by  the  latter  in  a  horizontal  semicircle,  or  downward  or 
upward  as  the  case  may  be.  I  have  also  seen  two  opposite  cur- 
rents meet  when  each  endeavored  to  force  its  antagonist  back 
with  alternate  success  and  failure,  until  one  got  the  better  over 
the  other,  and  at  last  kept  undisputed  sway." 

In  the  second  place,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  we  do  not 
owe  the  alternate  character  of  our  condition  to  the  obstruction  of 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  181 

the  N.E.  trades,  blowing  against  the  S.E.,  preventing  temporarily 
their  passage,  causing  them  to  accumulate  until  sufficiently  strong 
to  overcome  the  resistance,  and  then  move  forward  in  larger  vol- 
ume and  an  excited  state,  and  that  thus  our  storms  arid  even  the 
hurricanes  originate. 

But  in  the  third  place,  there  are  few  places  where  the  trades 
can  be  said  to  meet.  They  blow  obliquely  in  under  the  central 
belt,  in  most  cases  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  it  is  an  easy 
matter  for  one  or  the  other  to  slide  over  or  under  as  Fendler  saw 
them  do  at  Colonia  Tovar.  There  is  much  reason  to  believe  that 
this  is  true,  as  a  rule,  upon  the  oceans,  where  both  are  of  consid- 
erable strength. 

But  in  the  fourth  place  it  is  to  be  considered  that  even  upon 
the  oceans  they  are  rarely  of  equal  strength.  Thus,  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  the  N.E.  trades  are  very  strong  upon  the  coast  of 
Africa,  where  the  ocean  is  kept  cool  by  the  Polar  currents,  but 
weak  and  almost  entirely  wanting,  west  of  longitude  35°.  This 
is  especially  true  during  the  summer  season,  when  the  oceanic 
isothermal  of  80°,  is  carried  up  to  the  latitude  of  Bermuda.  If 
you  turn  back  to  the  statement  of  Dr.  Lynes,  you  will  see  that 
although  they  struck  the  latitude  in  which  the  N.E.  trades  should 
be,  on  the  7th  of  July,  they  found  very  little  of  that  description 
of  trade,  until  they  made  easting,  and  a  day  or  two  before  they 
encountered  the  belt  of  rains.  Their  route  was  nearly  a  direct  line 
from  New  York  to  Cape  St.  Roque,  with  a  slight  curve  to  the 
east.  Sailing  vessels,  bound  south  of  the  Equator,  make  a  much 
larger  curve  to  the  east,  so  as  to  strike  the  N.E.  trades  in  their 
strength  on  the  east  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  cross  the  belt  of 
rains  further  east. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  summer  season  the  belt  of  rains 
curves  up  over  the  western  Atlantic,  and  over  the  West  India 
Islands,  and  on  to  Florida  and  the  southern  portions  of  the  Gulf 
States.  West  of  a  line  drawn  from  New  York,  to  lat.  30°  upon 
the  Equator,  the  S.E.  trades  prevail  in  the  summer,  and  the  N.E. 
trades  are  occasional,  weak,  and  unreliable.  The  surface  is  usurped 
by  the  southerly  trades.  Of  this  too,  Mr.  Fendler  speaks  with 
that  intelligence  that  characterizes  all  his  observations. 


182 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


"  As  lo  the  trade-winds,  I  found  on  my  trip  from  Philadelphia 
to  Laguayra,  that  within  the  tropics  we  had  no  E.N.E.  wind, 
which  is  thought  to  be  the  regular  trade-wind  of  those  regions. 
After  crossing  lat.  23J°  in  long.  68j°,  we  were  becalmed  for  one 
day,  and  soon  after  got  a  fiesh  bieeze  from  the  south,  which  we 
kept  all  the  way  to  long.  63°.  By  tacking,  we  got  to  lat.  22°, 
long.  63J.°  From  thence  we  had  the  wind  all  the  time  from  S.S.E. 
which  we  kept  to  lat  11^°,  the  day  before  we  reached  Laguayra. 
Capt.  Wilkins,  who  has  been  in  this  southern  trade  for  18  years, 
assured  me  that  within  the  last  8  years,  he  never  could  depend 
much  upon  the  trade-winds.  He  finds  that  between  lat.  23°  and 
18°  the  south  wind  frequently  kept  on  blowing  very  brisk  for 
eight  days  in  succession. 

"  On  the  way  from  the  colony  to  Caracas,  along  the  high  ridge 
of  the  principal  mountain  chain  which  stretches  east  and  west 
parallel  with  the  coast,  at  an  elevation  of  from  7,000  to  8,000 
feet,  we  travel  about  six  miles  over  a  region  bare  of  forests,  where 
we,  nearly  at  all  times,  find  a  very  strong  breeze  from  the  south 
rushing  up  the  declivity  and  over  the  ridge,  hurries  off  to  the 
north,  towards  the  ocean.  The  ocean  can  be  plainly  seen  from 
this  elevation.  That  this  great  current  of  air  does  not  sink  down 
along  the  northern  slope,  but  on  the  contrary,  is  somewhat  pro- 
jected upward  by  the  shape  of  the  mountain,  can  be  seen  by  the 
course  of  the  condensed  vapors,  which,  in  the  form  of  fog  and 
mist,  are  driven  along.  May  not  this  current  of  air  sink  gradu- 
ally lower  and  lower,  until  it  reaches  about  lat.  18°,  where  it 
strikes  the  sea  ?  I  have  found  this  south  wind  at  sea,  always 
much  colder  than  any  of  the  other  winds  in  these  latitudes."  And 
he  gives  the  following  cut,  exhibiting  the  passage  of  this  upper 
trade  to  the  eye. 


sea 

N 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  183 

The  view  is  a  section  looking  east.  The  elevation  where  the 
upper  trade  is  felt  is  at  «,  and  the  long  arrow  indicates  the  course 
of  the  upper  trade,  and  the  scud  in  the  valleys  the  lower  trade. 
But  I  will  give  the  description  in  the  language  of  Mr.  Fendler 
himself. 

u  Several  times  I  had  a  most  excellent  opportunity  for  observ- 
ing and  tracing  the  course  of  this  southern  current  to  a  great  dis- 
tance in  the  direction  south  and  north.  I  was  then  standing  on 
the  very  crest  of  the  mountains  of  the  coast,  having  a  view  tow- 
ards the  north  upon  the  sea,  and  towards  the  south  over  a  part  of 
the  fertile  valleys  of  Araguay.  Scattered  masses  of  clouds  showed 
plainly  by  their  motion,  the  direction  of  the  current  in  a  long 
line,  whence  it  came  and  whither  it  went.  The  annexed  figure 
may  serve  to  give  a  somewhat  clearer  idea.  It  is  to  represent  a 
vertical  section  of  the  territory  from  south  to  north,  i  a '  the  place 
of  observation,  'v'  the  valleys  between  the  northern  and  south- 
ern ranges,  'cc'  clouds  moving  with  the  eastern  trade- winds 
towards  the  west,  the  line  'bb'  the  track  of  the  high  southern 
current,  which  had  a  velocity  of  about  twelve  miles  per  hour,  and 
a  somewhat  sinking  tendency,  until  it  struck  the  northern  range, 
where  it  was  forced  upwards  for  a  short  distance  until  it  reached 
the  crest,  and  then  went  on  unobstructed  on  the  other  side  of  the 
mountains,  in  a  horizontal  line,  apparently  lowering  but  very 
little,  leaving  hereby  the  eastern  trade-winds  of  the  sea  far  below 
and  undisturbed  in  their  regular  and  steady  course,  which  is  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  former.  The  lower  clouds  of  the 
valley  showed  plainly  a  motion  from  east  to  west,  as  seen  against 
the  dark  background  of  the  southern  mountains.  The  high 
southern  current  was  not  indicated  by  clouds  in  those  places  where 
it  was  vertically  over  the  lowest  parts  of  the  valley ;  but  when 
drawing  nearer  to  the  Cordilleras,  on  which  I  stood,  the  vapors 
which  it  contained  conden.-ed  rapidly,  and  became  visible,  as  drift- 
ing, incoherent  clouds  sweeping  by,  and  which  could  still  be  seen 
on  the  sea  side  as  long  as  they  floated  over  the  dense,  primeval 
forest,  which  extends  here  from  the  mountains'  tops,  to  the  very 
margin  of  the  sea." 


184  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

"  Here  I  may  also  remark  that  the  great  amount  of  cloudiness, 
which  in  some  respects  may  be  regarded  as  a  disadvantage  to 
observation,  offers,  with  regard  to  the  currents  of  the  atmosphere, 
great  advantages,  the  condensed  vapors  indicating  the  various 
motions  and  directions  of  these  currents,  and  I  have  had,  there- 
fore, opportunities  to  observe  them  in  most  of  their  various  forms. 
Sometimes  I  have  seen  the  air  ascend  and  descend  vertically  with 
considerable  velocity,  at  other  times  pushed  up  the  inclined  planes 
of  mountain  flanks  on  one  side  until  reaching  the  crest,  arid  then 
gliding  or  flowing  down  on  the  other  side,  somewhat  like  a  liquid, 
following  in  its  course  the  most  depressed  localities  and  ravines  in 
all  their  windings.  Sometimes,  the  eastern  currents  may  be  seen 
in  their  gradually  ascending  but  nearly  horizontal  course,  to  meet 
the  higher  southern  current  at  right  angles,  and,  without  mixing,  to 
be  deflected  by  the  latter  in  a  horizontal  semicircle,  or  downward 
or  upward,  as  the  case  may  be.  I  have  also  seen  two  opposite 
currents  meet,  when  each  endeavored  to  force  its  antagonist  back, 
with  alternate  success  and  failure,  until  one  got  the  better  over 
the  other,  and  at  last  kept  undisputed  sway." 

In  addition  to  this  there  is  very  much  evidence  to  establish  the 
fact  that  along  the  N.E.  coast  of  South  America,  and  over  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  West  Indies,  the  S.E. 
trades  continue  up  in  summer  as  a  surface  current  30°  or  more  in 
breadth,  the  source  of  our  bountiful  supply  of  moisture,  the  foun- 
tain of  our  Atlantic  system  of  conditions,  and  the  field  where  the 
hurricanes  of  the  Western  Atlantic  originate  and  operate  with 
their  greatest  violence,  (see  charts  of  Lieut.  Maury,  and  Mr.  Red- 
field,  herein  before  given,)  and  Prof.  Coffin's  tables  of  the  wind 
of  the  Gulf  States. 

The  evidence  to  show  that  the  N.E.  trades  of  the  eastern  At- 
lantic find  their  way  to  South  America,  covering  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon  and  pressing  up  the  slope  of  the  Andes,  derivedfrom 
the  records  of  Herndon  and  Gibbon,  and  from  other  sources  for 
which  I  have  not  space,  is  entirely  satisfactory.  There  is  no  in- 
trinsic difficulty  in  the  idea  that  when  they  meet  the  stronger 
S.E.  trades  of  the  west  side  of  the  ocean,  they  rise  and  pass  over 


THE    ATMOSPHEHIC    SYSTEM.  185 

them,  descending  again  or  meeting  the  elevated  land  and  depos- 
iting their  moisture  upon  the  continent  of  South  America. 

If  now  you  turn  to  the  diagram  of  Prof.  Coffin,  on  page  134, 
or  the  diagram  which  I  have  introduced  on  page  119,  you  will 
observe  that  upon  the  middle  and  eastern  part  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  south  of  the  belt  of  rains,  the  trades  become  more  south- 
erly and  southwesterly  near  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  S.E.  trades 
there  are  light  compared  with  the  N.E.  and  undoubtedly  pass 
over  them,  for  they  are  found  as  an  upper  current  from  the  S.  W. 
on  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe.  Of  the  deflected  trades,  which  be- 
coming still  more  easterly,  blow  in  upon  the  continent  of  Africa, 
upon  Senegambia  and  the  countries  lying  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  represented  upon  the  diagrams,  I  cannot  yet  speak  with- 
out anticipating. 

We  see  then  that  upon  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  there  is  nothing  to 
prevent  the  trades  from  passing  each  other,  and  there  is  satisfac- 
tory evidence  that  they  do  indeed  pass. 

And  so  there  is  everywhere;  Fendler  describes  the  S.E.  wind 
blowing  over  the  surface  trade  at  an  elevation  of  from  8,000  to 
10.000  feet,  when  the  belt  is  south,  and  blowing  as  a  surface  wind 
when  the  belt  was  over  him  or  at  the  north.  Gibbon  found  the 
N.E.  upper  trade  on  the  Andes,  south  of  the  belt,  and  struck  the 
S.E.  surface  trade  when  he  descended  into  the  valleys  at  their 
base.  Goodrich  found  the  counter  trade  or  return  trade,  as  Dove 
calls  it,  on  the  mountains  of  Hawaii  as  a  horizontal,  not  a  descend- 
ing wind,  and  Von  Busch  and  others  found  it  on  the  peak  of 
Teneriffe  the  same. 

All  the  phenomena  of  the  system  point  to  the  same  result. 
All  the  storms  in  both  hemispheres,  which  originate  in  the  belt  of 
rains,  and  are  sufficiently  intense  to  find  their  way  to  the  polar 
zones,  move  to  the  northwestward,  until  near  the  outer  limits  of 
the  trades,  when  they  curve  to  the  northeastward.  Instances 
where  storms  have  thus  issued  simultaneously  and  moved  diverg- 
ently to  each  polar  zone,  are  on  record.  (See  work  of  Col.  Reid, 
page  43.)  Extensive  arid  areas  lie  northwest  of  arid  or  mountain- 
ous southern  continents,  and  wet  areas  northwesterly  of  southern 


186  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

oceans,  and  vice  versa.  The  Andes  of  South  America  cause  the 
aridity  of  Northern  Mexico,  Southeastern  California,  and  Utah, 
and  the  aridity  of  New  Holland,  causes  the  arid  areas  of  West- 
ern Asia. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  the  counter  or  return  trade  leaves  the 
central  belt  as  a  S.W.  wind,  but  all  the  reliable  evidence  alluded 
to  and  much  more  for  which  I  have  not  space,  proves  the  con- 
trary. If  it  were  true,  the  western  coast  of  North  America  would 
be  wet,  and  the  eastern  dry.  So  of  the  whole  western  coast  of 
South  America  for  the  counter  or  upper  trade  of  the  southern 
hemisphere,  would  undoubtedly  follow  the  same  law,  and  move  in 
upon  that  coast  from  the  N.W.  Peru,  which  is  now  dry  for  the 
want  of  an  upper  N.E.  trade,  because  it  is  intercepted  by  the 
Andes,  would  be  as  wet  as  Chili  or  Patagonia.  And  the  same 
would  be  true  of  Europe,  of  Africa,  or  arid  Southwestern  Asia, 
and  still  more  arid  New  Holland.  The  theory  cannot  be  true. 

But  it  is  in  all  our  text-books,  and  I  will  add  a  few  words  in 
relation  to  the  evidence  on  which  it  is  founded.  And  first  in  re- 
lation to  observations  on  the  Peak  of  Tenneriffe.  The  existence 
of  a  S.W.  wind  there  is  explained  by  two  facts  :  1st,  that  the 
southern  trades  of  the  eastern  Atlantic,  are  deflected,  and  enter 
the  belt  of  rains,  as  S.W.  trades,  as  we  have  already  stated,  and 
the  S.W.  wind  on  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe  may  be  a  continuation 
of  them.  2d,  the  upper  trade  commences  curving  to  the  east  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  outer  limit  of  the  lower  trade,  and  this  fact  in- 
validates the  evidence  derived  from  observations  on  the  peak  of 
Teneriffe  and  the  mountains  of  Hawaii. 

The  next  item  of  evidence  on  which  the  theory  is  rested,  is  the 
falling  of  ashes  in  Barbadoes,  from  the  volcano  in  St.  Vincent, 
but  this  evidence  is  not  reliable.  Barbadoes  is  100  miles  directly 
east  of  St.  Vincent,  and  a  S.W.  wind  would  have  carried  the 
ashes  to  the  N.E.,  and  clear  of  it ;  and  in  the  second  place,  "slant 
winds  "  from  every  point  of  the  compass  are  experienced  in  that 
vicinity,  produced  by  passing  storms,  sometimes  too  far  off  to  be 
observed,  yet  near  enough  to  disturb  the  currents  of  the  atmos- 
phere. These  occasional  slants  are  felt  by  all  mariners,  and  one 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  187 

is  described  in  the  diary  of  Dr.  Lynes  from  the  S.  W.  in  that  vicin- 
ity, when  no  storm  was  experienced.  Fendler  describes  these 
occasional  slants  as  occurring  at  Colonia  Tovar  and  in  the  West 
India  Seas,  and  Maury's  Sailing  Directions  are  full  of  them. 
Moreover  it  does  not  appear  that  the  ashes  fell  upon  St.  Lucia, 
which  lies  much  nearer  St.  Vincent  and  N.N.E.  from  it.  This 
evidence  is  entitled  to  no  consideration. 

A  stronger  point  is  made  in  relation  to  the  ashes  which  were 
thrown  out  from  Cosaguina  and  fell  about  Jamaica.  In  relation 
to  this  it  may  be  observed,  first,  that  they  too,  may  have  been 
transported  by  an  occasional  slant  wind,  and  second,  that  an  ex- 
ceptional upper  current  from  the  southwest  must,  to  some  extent, 
exist  in  that  vicinity,  for  the  S.E.  trades  off  the  northwest  coast  of 
South  America  are  deflected,  as  upon  the  coasts  of  Africa  and 
Hindostan,  and  constitute  there  a  S.W.  monsoon,  as  represented 
upon  the  diagram.  And  here  again,  to  illustrate  this,  I  copy  from 
the  record  of  Dr.  Lynes : 

"  Sunday  25.  7  A.M.,  ther.  64°,  cloudy,  cool  and  pleasant,  as 
the  sun  shines  occasionally.  Strong  S.E.  trades  white  caps  and 
large  swell.  Cape  Blanco  in  sight  at  8  A.M. ;  saw  a  brig  and 
numerous  whales  to-day.  Wind  in  afternoon,  S.S.  W.  Ther.  hig- 
est  70°,  lat.  3°  38',  long.  81°  38'.  Miles  188. 

Monday  26.  7  A.M.,  ther.  69°,  cloudy,  warm  but  pleasant ; 
close  and  muggy,  nearly  calm  and  smooth  sea.  Passed  La  Plata 
island  at  6  A.M.,  and  Cape  Lorenzo  at  8J  A.M.  Crossed  the 
Equator  at  3.30  P.M.  Quite  warm  and  light  breeze  from  S.W. 
Ther.  highest  76°,  lat.  0°  27',  long.  80°  58'  W.  Miles  196. 

Tuesday  27.  7  A.M.,  ther.  74°,  cloudy,  warm  and  pleasant. 
Sun  rose  clear,  but  soon  overcast.  Light  wind  from  S.  W.,  smooth 
sea.  At  7.15  A.M.,  passed  the  English  steamer  Santiago  from 
Panama,  bound  south.  Hot  this  P.M.,  showers.  Have  run  out 
of  the  S.E.  trades  into  the  S.  W.  monsoons.  Ther.  highest  80°, 
lat.  2°  29'  N.,  long.  80°  16'  W.  Miles  180. 

Wednesday  28.  7  A.M.,  ther.  78,  cloudy,  warm  and  frequent 
heavy  showers.  Light  S.  W.  winds,  close  and  muggy  air,  sea  very 
smooth  but  long  S.  W.  swell.  Slowed  engine  to  5J  turns  yester- 


188  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

day,  showers  all  day.     Caught  a  swallow  lighted  on  ship.     Then 
80°,  lat.  5°  3'  N.,  long.  79°  50'.     Miles  156." 

Now  this  S.W.  monsoon,  constituted  by  a  deflection  of  the 
S.E.  trade  on  the  N.W.  coast  of  South  America,  continues  in  all 
probability  and  according  to  all  analogy  as  an  upper  trade  over 
Jamaica,  and  carried  the  ashes  there.  The  same  ashes  fell  on 
the  "  Conway"  at  the  same  time  at  a  distance  of  several  hundred 
miles  on  the  Pacific,  carried  there  doubtless  by  the  surface  E.N.E. 
trades.  That  piece  of  evidence  is  also  unreliable. 

Lieut.  Maury  in  his  "  Sailing  Directions  "  and  in  his  "  Geog- 
raphy of  the  Sea,"  inferred  that  the  upper  trade  was  a  S.W.  wind, 
because  of  the  deposition  of  dust  on  southwestern  Europe,  which 
contained  organic  forms  known  to  exist  in  South  America,  and 
which  he  assumed  were  taken  up  into  the  upper  trade  by  whirl- 
pillars  and  tornadoes,  and  carried  thence  to  Europe.  But  dry 
seasons,  arid  plains,  tornadoes  and  whirl-pillars,  occur  in  Equato- 
rial and  South  Africa  also.  To  this  effect  is  the  evidence  of 
Livingstone  and  Du  Chaillu,  and  for  aught  that  appears,  the  same 
organic  forms  exist  there.  Moreover,  the  dust  falls  on  a  curve 
which  clearly  indicates  an  African  origin.  And  the  observations 
of  Fendler  and  others,  show  conclusively  that  the  S.E.  trades  of 
the  Atlantic,  except  where  deflected  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  find 
their  way  on  to  our  continent. 

From  this  review  I  think  it  appears  that  the  upper  trade  con- 
forms to  the  direction  which  it  had  as  a  surface  trade,  until  near 
the  outer  line  of  the  surface  trade,  over  which  it  is  flowing,  when 
it  curves  to  the  eastward,  obedient  to  a  law  which  is  hereafter  to 
be  considered. 

There  is  still  another  important  fact  to  which  I  wish  to  call  par- 
ticular attention,  before  closing  this  analysis  of  the  great  central 
condition,  for  it  has  a  special  relation  to  irregularities  in  the  con- 
ditions of  our  own  climate.  I  refer  to  variations  in  the  commence- 
ment, progress,  and  extent  of  the  transits  of  the  central  belt  in 
different  years.  This  matter  was  briefly  alluded  to  on  page  171 
with  the  expression  of  an  intention  to  resume  it.  Fendler  thus 
speaks  of  it : 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  189 

"The  dry  season  commences  here,  generally,  soon  after  New 
Years  day,  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  April.  The  remainder  of  the 
year  is  taken  up  by  the  rainy  season.  This  is  generally  so,  for 
there  are  many  exceptions,  and  our  notions  about  the  great  regu- 
larity and  sharply  denned  seasons  of  the  tropics,  which  we  have 
received  from  books,  are  sometimes  materially  upset  and  correct- 
ed by  experience.  When  I  first  came  to  the  colony,  in  March, 
1854,  we  had  a  dry  season  in  its  usual  way.  The  rainy  season 
then  commenced  on  the  23d  of  April,  but  it  did  not  end  with  the 
latter  part  of  December,  as  is  usually  the  case ;  it  lasted  till  the 
end  of  January,  and  commenced  again  with  the  first  of  March, 
and  then  kept  uniformly  on  till  the  end  of  December,  1855.  The 
dry  season  was  therefore  only  of  one  months  duration  instead  of 
four.  The  last  dry  season,  has  been,  on  the  contrary,  unusually 
long,  and  lasted  till  the  latter  part  of  May." 

And  Du  Chaillu,  who  travelled  in  Central  Africa,  near  the 
Equator,  says : 

"The  dry  season  this  year,  (1864)  was  an  unusual  one  for 
the  long  absence  of  rain  and  lowness  of  the  rivers.  The  negroes 
have  a  special  name  for  a  season  of  this  sort,  calling  it  enomo 
onguero ;  it  lasts  five  months,  and  they  assure  me  that  it  always 
comes  after  a  long  series  of  dry  seasons  of  the  usual  length ;  we 
have  had  a  few  showers,  but  they  have  produced  no  impression. 

And  so  Livingstone  when  he  met  the  descending  rainy  belt  in 
December,  1853,  at  Naliele,  on  his  way  to  Louda,  in  lat.  15°  24', 
says  of  it :  "  The  rains  began  while  we  were  at  Naliele  ;  this  is 
much  later  than  usual." 

And  so,  when  in  South  Africa,  speaking  of  occasional  rains  in 
the  Kalahari  Desert,  he  says  :  "  But  the  most  surprising  plant  of 
the  Desert  is  the  *  Kengwe  or  Kerne,'  (Cucumis  caffer,)  the  water- 
melon. In  years  when  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  rain  falls, 
vast  tracts  of  the  country  are  literally  covered  with  these  melons; 
this  was  the  case  annually  when  the  fall  of  rain  was  greater  than 
it  is  now,  and  the  Bakwains  sent  trading  parties  every  year  to  the 
lake.  It  happens  commonly  once  every  ten  or  eleven  years,  and 
for  the  last  three  times  its  occurrence  has  coincided  with  an  ex- 


190  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

traordinarily  wet  season.  Then  animals  of  every  sort  and  name, 
including  man,  rejoice  in  the  rich  supply." 

And  again  on  page  135  he  says,  "  Having  parted  with  Sechele, 
we  skirted  along  the  Kalahari  Desert,  and  sometimes  within  its 
borders,  giving  the  Boers  a  wide  berth.  A  larger  fall  of  rain 
than  usual  had  occurred  in  1852,  and  that  was  the  completion  of 
a  cycle  of  eleven  or  twelve  years,  at  which  the  same  phenomenon 
is  reported  to  have  happened  on  three  occasions.  An  unusually 
large  crop  of  melons  had  appeared  in  consequence." 

On  this  point  there  is  much  other  evidence,  but  these  extracts 
will  suffice.  I  enter  the  facts  here  as  pertaining  to  the  condition. 
Corresponding  irregularities  occur  in  the  polar  zones  and  both  will 
be  explained  hereafter. 

In  relation  to  the  movement  of  the  upper  stratum  of  cirrus  and 
cirro-stratus,  the  evidence  is  limited.  So  far  as  the  observations  of 
Gibbon  and  Herndon  upon  the  Andes,  and  of  Livingstone  and 
Barth  in  Africa,  bear  upon  the  point,  they  indicate  that  the  move- 
ment is  westerly,  and  as  its  movement  elsewhere  in  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres  conforms  to  the  path  of  the  conditions 
beneath  it,  its  movement  in  that  direction  may  well  be  analogi- 
cally assumed. 

And  now  with  a  brief  resume  of  the  principal  facts,  thus  at 
length  collected  and  arranged,  I  will  close  this  analysis  of  the 
great  central  condition. 

I.  This  condition  consists  of  a  central  body  known  as  the  cen- 
tral belt  of  rain,  and  two  areas  or  wings  of  wind,  known  as  the 
trade  winds, — the  whole  together,  having  a  westerly  movement. 

II  The  trade-wind  south  of  the  body,  moves  from  some  point 
between  east  and  south,  towards  a  corresponding  point  between 
west  and  north,  and  the  trade-wind  north  of  the  body,  moves  from 
some  point  between  north  and  east,  towards  a  corresponding  point 
between  south  and  west. 

III.  The  central  condition  has  an  average  breadth  of  about 
50°,  and  a  transit  north  and  south  averaging  more  than  25°. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  central  portion  of  the  globe  is  therefore 
covered  by  it,  at  some  seasons  of  the  year. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  191 

IV.  The  central  portion  or  body  averaging  more  than  five  hun- 
dred miles  in  width,  precipitates   rain  wherever  it  may  be,  and 
gives  to  the  tropical  portions  of  the  earth,  as  it  passes  over  them 
in  its  transits,  their  rainy  seasons. 

V.  The  areas  covered  by  the  trade-winds,  while  so  covered, 
are  as  a  rule  dry,  except  as  occasional  storms  or  showers,  issuing 
from  the  central  belt,  in  the  trade,  precipitate  upon  them. 

VI.  The  polar  zones  of  rains  recede  before  the  advancing 
areas  of  trade-winds,  and  return  after  them  as  they  retire. 

VII.  Surfaces  which  are  not  covered  by  the  transits  of  the  cen- 
tral belt  of  rains,  nor  the  tropical  extension  of  the  polar  zones  of 
rains,  continue  dry  through  the  year,  and  constitute  the  principal 
rainless  deserts  of  the  world. 

VIII.  The  trade-winds  blow  with  substantial  constancy  night 
and  day,  when  not  interrupted  by  passing  storms,  and  contain  scud, 
and  both  winds  and  scud  resemble  the  wind  and  scud  of  approach- 
ing or  passing  conditions  in  the  polar  zones. 

IX.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  also  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Pacific  Oceans,  the  S.E.  trades  exist  in  great  strength  and 
volume,  and  blow  as  surface  winds  over  latitudes  which  would 
otherwise  be  covered  by  the  N.E.  trades,  up  to  and  connecting 
with  the  polar  zones  of  rains.     These  two  exceptional  and  re- 
markable volumes  of  trade  give  a  large  and  exceptional  supply 
of  moisture  and  fertility,  and  a  peculiar  climatology  to  S.E.  North 
America,  and  S.E.  Asia.     And  in  these  remarkable  volumes  of 
trade,  originate  the  intense  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies,  and 
the  typhoons  of  the  China  Sea  and  Bay  of  Bengal. 

X.  Where  the  S.E.  trades  originate  on  arid  areas,  like  that  of 
New  Holland,  corresponding  areas  under  the  north  polar  zone  of 
rains,  like  those  of  southwestern  Asia,  are  dry.     And  where  they 
originate  on   continents  that  are  well   watered,   areas   under  the 
same  polar  zone  are  less  perfectly  supplied   with   moisture  than 
those  supplied  by  trades  which  originate  upon  oceans.      And  where 
they  originate  upon  continents  like  that  of  South   America,  or 
upon  oceans  and  are  met  in  their  path  by  lofty  mountains,  corres- 


192  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ponding  areas  like  those  of  southwestern  North  America,  and  the 
Desert  of  Gobi  in  Asia,  and  Peru  in  South  America,  are  found. 

XI.  The  body  of  the  central  condition  is  composed,  1st  of  an 
overlying  stratum  of  cirrus  and  cirro-stratus,  extending  in  a  more 
misty  form,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  out  over  the  trades.    This 
stratum  is  usually  misty  or  fibre-cirrus  in  the  morning,  becoming 
dense  and  assuming  a  cirro-stratus   form,  as   the   day  advances. 
Under  this  stratum  the  trades  pass  and  afterwards  overlie  each 
other,  and  in  the  trades  occasionally,  though  rarely,  in  the  morn- 
ing, but  generally  in  the  afternoon  or  night,  thunder-showers  form 
and  furnish  the  rains  peculiar  to  the  belt.     These  showers  have  a 
westerly  progression,  corresponding  to  that  of  the  trade  in  which 
they  are  formed.     Beneath  the  trades  where  they  meet  and  pass 
each  other,  it  is  either  calm  or  there  are  squalls  or  gusts  or  slant 
winds,  incidental  to  showers  or  storms  as  everywhere. 

XII.  The  northern  transit  of  the  condition  is  usually  complet- 
ed about  the  first  of  August,  and  the  southern  tran-it  commenced 
before    the  middle  of  that  month.     So   the  southern  transit  is 
usually  completed  about  the  first  of  February,  and  the  northern 
transit  commenced  before  the  loth.     But  in  respect  to  these,  and 
also  in  respect  to  the  rapidity  and  extent  of  the  transits,  there  are 
some  irregularities,  occasioned  by  a  cause  which  could  not  be  con- 
sidered without  anticipating. 

XIII.  There  is  no  vortex  in  the  central  belt.     The  theory  of 
Halley  was  originally  but  a  mere  assumption,  and  is  not  support- 
ed by  any  facts  since  discovered.     Observation,  analogy,  and 
every  known  fact,  when  properly  understood,  are  inconsistent  with 
and  adverse  to  it.     No  man,  in  the  light  of  facts  now  known,  can 
believe  it,  and  be  honest  with  himself.     No  man  acquainted  with 
the  facts,  can  teach  it,  and  be  honest  with  others. 

Having  thus  examined,  and  I  hope  comprehended,  the  nature, 
extent,  and  essential  features  and  elements,  of  the  great  fundamen- 
tal, permanent,  and  controlling  CENTRAL  CONDITION,  we  are  pre- 
pared to  return  to  the  polar  zones,  and  a  further  examination  of 
them. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

Re-statement  of  the  fact  that  the  normal  or  natural  state  of  the  polar  zones, 
is  dry,  fair  weather,  and  that  they  have  no  independent  arrangement  for 
a  supply  of  moisture — Heat,  as  a  mechanical  agent,  does  not  do  it — It  is 
effected  by  passing  conditions  which  originate  in,  or  result  from,  the  fun- 
damental, tropical  condition — Some  conditions,  which  originate  in  the 
central  helt,  and  others  which  originate  in  the  polar  zones,  reach  the  Arctic 
Circles,  retaining  all  their  essential  elements — Copy  from  Dr.  Kane's  rec- 
ord during  the  absence  of  the  sun,  to  prove  it — Analysis  of  two  recorded 
storms — Halley's  theory  requires  the  belief  that  the  sun  creates  storms 
where  there  is  no  sunshine,  and  American  Meteorologists  hold  and  teach 
the  absurdity — practical  men,  whose  profession  or  business  trains  them  in 
the  logic  of  cause  and  effect,  know  better — Storms  met  with  by  Dr.  Kane 
probably  originated  upon  the  Pacific — Storms  originate  in  the  polar  zones, 
where  there  is  a  sufficient  volume  of  upper  trade — Where  there  is  not  suf- 
ficient volume,  stormy  conditions  do  not  occur — Recapitulation  of  the 
proof  furnished  by  the  changes  which  occur  in  our  own  country — The  ir- 
regularities of  the  central  condition  produce  irregularities  in  our  zone — 
One  of  the  principal  irregularities  is  drouth — Four  classes  of  drouth  at- 
tributable to  such  irregular  action — The  first  class  occur  in  spring,  north 
of  the  focal  path — occasioned  by  the  retarded  progress  of  that  path  to  the 
north — most  common  east  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  upon  the 
northeastern  states — Second  class  produced  by  the  unusually  extended 
transit  and  concentration  of  the  focal  path — This  class  are  south  of  that 
path — such  was  the  drouth  of  1854— The  third  class  are  meridional — occur 
in  the  interior  of  the  country — produced  by  the  concentration  of  the  upper 
trade  and  a  succession  of  conditions  upon  the  Atlantic  coast — such  was 
the  drouth  of  1867 — The  fourth  class  are  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  only, 
occasioned  by  an  extension  of  the  outer  limits  of  the  N.E.  trades — occur 
in  July  and  August  only — Limited  and  local  drouths — tendency  to  them 
in  certain  localities — northern  part  of  the  Gulf  States — south  coast  of  New 
England — Configuration  sometimes  produces  them — also  the  passage  of 
successive  belts  of  showers  in  the  morning — Such  belts  if  of  weak  inten- 
sity, do  not  precipitate  where  they  are  vertical  in  the  morning — Instances 
of  such  irregular  precipitation — Want  of  data  for  a  thorough  elucidation 
of  drouths — a  history  of  them  by  Mr.  Flint,  Secretary  of  Board  of  Agri- 


11)4  TllE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

culture,  Massachusetts — Examination  of  that  history — Are  there  any  facts 
which  will  guide  us  to  a  knowledge  of  these  irregularities  ? — Some  of  them 
connected  with  spots  upon  the  sun — Description  of  those  spots  and  of 
Schwabe's  investigation — Tables  and  observations  given  by  him — not  per- 
fect or  satisfactory — nevertheless  the  connection  with  the  irregularities  of 
the  system  apparent — Comparison  of  the  table  of  spots  with  the  transits  of 
the  focal  paths  of  the  conditions — Effect  upon  the  mean  fall  of  rain — Effect 
upon  temperature — Extended  examination  of  the  subject,  in  various  local- 
ities and  under  various  circumstances — Examination  of  facts  which  seem 
to  militate  against  the  connection — Properly  understood,  the  facts  are  not 
adverse,  because  consequent  upon  irregular  transits — Extended  examina- 
tion of  the  whole  subject — Connection  between  the  spots  and  the  irregular 
action  of  the  whole  system — Inquiry  whether  there  are  any  other  forces 
or  causes  which  affect  the  system — Volcanic  action — its  influence  probable 
— Extended  examination  of  the  question — Influence  of  the  moon  upon 
the  weather — Popular  opinion  upon  the  subject — Such  an  opinion  requir- 
ing careful  examination — No  such  influence  can  be  traced,  upon  such  ex- 
amination— No  facts  from  which  it  can  be  analogically  or  philosophically 
presumed. 

We  have  in  what  has  already  appeared  ample  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  our  first  proposition,  that  the  normal  or  natural  state  of 
the  polar  zones  is  dry,  fair  weather,  and  that  they  have  no  inde- 
pendent arrangement  for  producing  storms,  and  a  supply  of  moist- 
ure. Heat,  as  we  have  seen,  as  a  mechanical  agent,  produces  no 
vortices  or  storms  on  deserts,  or  on  fertile  surfaces  during  their 
dry  seasons  however  hot.  The  distribution  of  moisture  in  the  polar 
zones,  is  effected  by  passing,  irregular,  and  limited  conditions,  which 
occasion  all  the  incidental  changes  of  the  weather,  and  those  condi- 
tions originate  in,  or  result  from  the  action  of  the  fundamental, 
central  condition.  That  condition  sends  off  its  storms  and  they 
traverse  for  days  the  polar  zones  up  to  and  into  the  Arctic  Circle. 
Although  no  one  has  traced  a  storm  from  the  central  belt  of  rains 
to  the  Arctic  Circle,  they  have  been  traced  by  several  American 
minds,  into  high  northern  latitudes,  as  far  as  settlements  or  com- 
merce have  enabled  them  to  obtain  evidence,  moving  with  dimin- 
ished but  still  sufficient  strength  to  reach  the  circle.  And  the 
conditions  appear  there  with  every  element  and  feature  which 
they  possess  in  lower  latitudes,  and  appear  when  the  oceans  are 
locked  up  with  ice,  the  surface  covered  with  snow,  and  the  sun 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYaTEM. 


195 


has  not  shone  for  weeks,  and  the  temperature  is  between  25°  and 
30°  below  zero.  Look  now  upon  the  following  record  from  Dr. 
Kane's  Register,  kept  during  the  Grinnell  expedition. 

JANUARY  1851,  (LATITUDE  ABOUT  74°,  LONGITUDE  ABOUT  70°). 


Date. 

Wind. 

Force. 

Ther. 

Bar. 

Sky  and  Weather. 

Jan.    3 

calm. 

—26.1 

29.62 

blue  sky  in. 

4 

W. 

gent,  breeze. 

—21.3 

29.53 

blue  sky,  detached  clouds,  m. 

5 

W.  by  N. 

gent,  breeze. 

-  3.9 

29.59 

blue  sky.  in.  clouded  over. 

6 

W.  by  S. 

light  breeze. 

—  0.8 

29.67 

clouded  over,  m.,  snow. 

7 

W. 

gent,  breeze. 

—14.4 

29.96 

blue  sky,  detached  clouds,  m. 

8 

w.s.w. 

light  air. 

—21.2 

30.14 

blue  sky,  m. 

29 

W.N.W. 

light  air. 

-18.9 

30.19 

blue  sky. 

30 

N.W.  by  W. 

light  air. 

-13.5 

30.17 

clouded  over,  m. 

31 

N.W.  by  W. 

gent,  breeze. 

—  4.4 

29.35 

clouded  over,  snow. 

Feb.    1 

W. 

light  breeze. 

—11.7 

29.27 

cloudy,  blue  sky,  m. 

'•      2 

W. 

light  air. 

—25.1 

29.62 

blue  sky,  detached  clouds,  m. 

Observe  that  on  the  third  of  January,  when  the  sun  had  not 
been  above  the  horizon  for  40  days,  the  air  was  calm,  the  sky 
cloudless  but  misty — (that  state  being  indicated  by  the  letter  m,) 
the  thermometer  at  26°  below  zero,  the  barometer  at  29.62 — a 
pleasant  arctic  day.  The  next  day  a  breeze  sprang  up  from  the 
west,  the  thermometer  began  to  rise,  the  barometer  to  fall,  de- 
tached clouds  to  appear,  whether  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus,  the  record 
does  not  state,  probably  the  former.  The  next  day  the  breeze 
continued,  the  thermometer  rose  rapidly  and  the  sky  clouded  over. 
During  the  following  24  hours,  the  thermometer  continued  to  rise, 
and  snow  fell.  During  the  next  24  hours,  the  thermometer  fell, 
the  barometer  rose  rapidly,  and  the  blue  sky,  with  its  detached 
clouds  (scud  doubtless)  appeared  again.  On  the  next  day,  the 
thermometer  Was  down,  the  barometer  up,  the  a  r  nearly  calm 
and  the  sky  cloudless. 

Now  here  we  have  the  record  of  a  distinct,  passing  condition, 
exhibiting  every  essential  feature.  We  have  the  precise  condi- 
tion which  often  occurs  in  our  own  latitude,  with  the  same  changes 
of  state.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  thermometer  from  the  fair  day 
before,  to  the  fair  day  after  the  storm,  was  substantially  the  same 
as  is  common  with  us,  and  all  the  phenomena  are  substantially  the 


196  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

same.  It  is  rare  with  us,  in  midwinter,  that  the  thermometer 
rises  more  than  25°,  prior  to,  and  during  a  midwinter  snow-storm. 
Another  storm  of  similar  character,  commenced  on  the  29th  of 
the  same  month,  differing  in  no  respect  except  that  the  rise  of  the 
thermometer  was  somewhat  less,  and  the  fall  of  the  barometer 
greater.  It  would  seem  too  much  for  the  intellect  of  the  most 
determined  and  exclusive  disciple  of  Halley  to  assume  that  such 
a  process  could  be  originated  or  continued  under  such  circumstan- 
ces, by  the  mere  mechanical  effect  of  heat  from  the  rays  of  an 
absent  sun.  But  it  is  not.  The  doctrine  which  Professors 
Henry  and  Loomis,  and  other  American  Meteorologists  persis- 
tently hold  and  teach,  includes  all  storms  everywhere,  and  com- 
pels them  to  attribute  such  effects  to  sunshine  where  there  is  no 
sunshine.  But  practical  reader,  our  professions  and  business  have 
trained  us  in  the  logic  of  cause  and  effect,  and  we  know  that  these 
storms  could  not  have  originated  there  from  such  a  cause.  And 
we  also  /enow  that  if,  as  is  probable,  they  originated  in  lower  lat- 
itudes, and  travelled  there,  they  must  have  passed  through  a  cold 
atmosphere,  and  over  a  snow  clad  surface  of  at  least  1000  miles, 
and  could  not  have  been  kept  in  continued  activity,  by  ascending 
currents  of  air,  produced  by  sun-heated  land.  Nor  could  the  dis- 
tinguishing elevation  of  the  thermometer  during  the  storms,  have 
been  produced  by  any  direct  action  of  the  sun.  There  has  not 
been,  since  the  serpent  whispered  in  the  ear  of  Eve,  a  grosser  de- 
lusion, or  one  more  persistently  taught  and  sustained,  without 
evidence  and  against  evidence.  It  is  impossible  for  an  honest 
mind  to  have  patience  with  it,  and  be  true  to  its  best  impulses. 

Before  I  leave  these  storms  let  me  observe  that  they  undoubt- 
edly originated  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  only  winds  which 
accompanied  them  were  from  the  western  quarter.  They  had  not 
sufficient  intensity  to  produce  a  strong  wind,  laterally  or  in  oppo- 
sition, and  in  snow-storms  of  such  weak  intensity,  in  high  lati- 
tudes, in  our  own  country,  the  wind  conforms  substantially  to  the 
path  of  the  storm.  Doubtless  it  did  so  in  those  described. 

But  all  the  conditions  experienced  in  the  polar  zones,  do  not 
originate  within  the  central  belt.  The  largest  proportion  of  them, 


THE    ATMOSPHKRIC    SYSTEM.  197 

and  some  of  the  most  violent,  commence  and  assume  form  and 
character,  at  or  beyond  the  outer  limit  of  the  surface  trade.  Such 
was  the  Cincinnati  hurricane  described.  But  the  great  central 
condition  sends  forth  the  volume  of  upper  trade  which  is  the  basis 
of  all  such  incidental  conditions,  and  therefore  they  result  from  it. 
Where  no  sufficient  volume  of  that  upper  or  counter  trade  issues 
forth,  or  traverses  the  polar  zones  no  such  incidental,  stormy  con- 
ditions are  known.  It  is  instructive  to  retrace  these  results,  (al- 
though already  traced)  upon  our  own  country.  Thus,  in  mid- 
winter, when  the  central  condition  moves  far  to  the  south,  the 
S.E.  trades  of  the  Atlantic  are  intercepted  by  the  mountuns  in 
the  southeastern  portion  of  Brazil,  and  the  Andean  ranges  of 
western  Venezuela  and  Columbia,  and  all  the  states  of  the  union, 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  except  the  Gulf  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  Atlantic  states  northeast  of  them,  are  compar- 
atively dry.  The  incidental  conditions  which  pass  over  them  are 
occasional  and  feeble.  As  the  great  central  condition  returns  to 
the  north,  and  the  S.E.  trades  originate  higher  u[:on  the  Atlantic, 
a  rainy  season  progresses  to  the  westward  over  Texas,  and  curves 
to  the  N.W.  over  western  Arkansas  and  Missouri,  and  so  on  to 
the  northeastward.  And  gradually,  as  the  central  condition  moves 
farther  north,  the  pa'h  of  the  conditions  is  gradually  extended 
westward  and  northwestward  until  August  and  September,  when, 
if  the  transit  has  not  been  interrupted,  New  Mexico  and  all  the 
northwestern 'states  are  reached  by  the  curving  conditions,  and  re- 
ceive their  summer  rains.  And  when  the  central  condition  de- 
scends again  to  the  south,  the  path  of  our  polar  conditions  is  grad- 
ually contracted  down  again  upon  the  southeastern  states.  The 
same  thing  occurs  upon  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  paths  of  their 
conditions,  constituting  a  distinct  system,  ascending  and  descend- 
ing with  the  movements  of  the  central  condition.  And  so  it  is 
everywhere  in  like  circumstances,  in  both  hemispheres,  and  in 
both  polar  zones.  So,  from  the  action  of  the  central  condition, 
all  our  incidental  conditions,  with  their  attendant  phenomena, 
constituting  the  weather  result.  And  irregularities  in  the  move- 
ments and  operations  of  the  central  condition,  produce  correspond- 


198  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ing  irregularities  in  the  polar  zones.     Let  us  look  at  those  irreg- 
ularities as  they  occur  in  this  country. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  and  important  irregularities  to  which 
we  are  subject,  is  that  of  Drouth.  When  these  are  extensive, 
unseasonable  anl  long  continued,  they  may  prima  facie  be  at- 
tributed to  irregularities  in  the  action  of  the  central  condition  ;  for 
as  our  fall  of  rain  at  any  given  point  depends  mainly  upon  the 
volume  of  counter  or  upper  trade  passing  over  it,  any  irregularity 
in  the  central  condition,  which  interrupts  the  usual  supply  of  that 
trade  at  that  point,  must  necessarily  produce  a  drouth  there. 

There  are  four  classes  of  drouth  of  extensive  character,  which 
can  be  directly  traced  to  irregular  action  of  the  central  condition. 
The  first  clas.i  occur  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  transit 
of  the  central  condition  to  the  north  is  delayed,  and  the  volume 
of  upper  trade  remains  concentrated  upon  the  southeastern  states. 
Such  drouths  are  mo<t  common  in  the  early  part  of  the  decade, 
following  open  winters,  and  are  greatly  injurious  to  crops  of  hay 
and  winter  grain.  Such  a  drouth  occurred  in  the  Spring  of  18G2, 
and  it  was  very  dry  in  all  the  northern  states,  while  McClellan 
and  his  army  were  nearly  drowned  out  on  the  Chickahominy. 
This  class  of  drouths  are  most  common  in  the  northeastern  states, 
because  the  focal  path  does  not  move  up  there  as  early  as  it  does 
to  the  westward  of  the  mountains,  and  often  seems  rather  to  con- 
tract down  in  March  and  April. 

Another  class  of  drouths  are  produced  by  an  unusually  extend- 
ed transit  and  concentration  of  the  central  condition  to  the  north 
and  west  in  summer,  carrying  the  path  of  the  conditions  farther 
to  the  west  and  north,  and  leaving  the  southeastern  portion  of 
the  United  States  comparatively  dry.  Such  was  the  drouth  of 
1854,  which  has  been  fully  described.  That  too  occurred  in  an 
early  year  of  the  decade,  and  was  connected  with  an  excessive 
transit  of  the  central  condition. 

The  third  class  of  drouths  are  meridional,  depending  upon  a 
concentration  of  the  volume  of  counter  trade,  and  a  succession  of 
storms  issuing  out  of  the  central  belt,  and  passing  up  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  United  States.  Such  a  condition  of  things  exist- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  199 

ed  in  1867,  when  a  severe  drouth  covered  the  interior  states  from 
Texas  to  Canada,  and  the  Atlantic  states  were  drenched  by  a  suc- 
cession of  tropical  storms,  which  passed  up  the  coast,  reaching 
inland  a  few  hundred  miles. 

A  fourth  class  which  sometimes  extends  as  far  north  as  New 
England,  are  confined  mainly  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  are  accompa- 
nied by  a  dry  northeast  wind,  and  are  evidently  produced  by  an 
unusual  and  temporary  extension  of  the  outer  limit  of  the  N.E. 
trade,  as  high  up  as  41°  or  42°  off  the  Atlantic  coast.  I  have 
known  such  a  temporary  extension  with  its  easterly  wind  to  last 
17  or  18  days.  But  the  few  others  that  I  have  known  have 
ranged  from  a  week  to  ten  days.  The  heavens  are  never  more 
brassy  than  during  the  short  drouths  dependent  upon  this  cause. 

There  are  also  limited  drouths  depending  upon  local  causes. 

There  is  a  known  tendency  to  drouths  in  the  summer  season, 
in  the  Gulf  States,  upon  the  area  which  for  the  time  being  is  left 
uncovered  by  upper  trade,  in  consequence  of  its  extension  to  the 
north  and  west  in  midsummer.  The  drouth  of  1854,  to  which  I 
have  alluded,  commenced  upon  that  area,  and  extended  north  and 
west,  as  I  have  shown  by  diagrams.  The  line  between  this  local 
drouth  arid  the  northern  line  of  the  central  belt  which  extends  up 
on  to  Florida  and  the  Gulf  Coast  in  midsummer,  is  sometimes 
very  sharply  defined.  Thus,  at  New  Orleans,  Tampa  Bay,  Mobile, 
Fort  Brook,  St.  Augustine,  and  Savannah,  the  rain-fall  may  be 
heavy,  when  upon  an  east  and  west  line,  one  hundred  miles  to 
the  north  of  them,  a  severe  drouth  may  prevail.  This  drouth, 
like  the  others  we  have  mentioned,  although  apparently  local,  de- 
pends upon  a  degree  of  the  same  action  of  the  central  condition, 
as  that  which  produced  the  drouth  of  1854. 

There  is  a  local  tendency  to  drouths  upon  the  southern  corKt 
of  New  England,  and  the  fall  of  rain  is  materially  less  in  the 
summer  than  upon  the  more  elevated  ridges  to  the  north  of  it. 
This  is  so  well  recognised  a  fact,  as  to  be  represented  upon  all  the 
hyetal  charts  of  the  country.  It  is  painful  to  hear  people  in  New 
England  complain  of  the  apparently  excessive  rain-fall  of  the 


200  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

rainy  season  in  May  and  June,  when  there  is  a  certainty  that  the 
springs  and  wells  will  need  it  all  in  July  and  August. 

Other  local  drouths  seem  to  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which 
belts  of  showers  distribute  their  rain.  The  eastern  and  middle 
states  of  the  union  are  supplied  with  rain  in  summer,  in  normal 
seasons,  mainly  by  passing  belts  of  showers.  These  belts  are 
very  irregular  in  their  action.  Sometimes,  they  precipitate  heav- 
ily in  the  afternoon  and  early  part  of  the  night  only,  and  then  the 
area  over  which  they  pass  during  the  latter  part  of  the  night  and 
morning,  will  receive  little  or  no  rain  from  them.  Thus,  the  first 
condition  which  I  have  described  of  August,  1859,  deposited  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  of  rain  at  Buffalo  and  Rochester  in  the  after- 
noon and  night  of  the  3d,  and  nearly  three  inches  at  Amherst  in 
the  afternoon  and  night  of  the  4th,  but  it  deposited  very  little 
rain  at  many  of  the  intermediate  places  where  the  focus  was  ver- 
tical in  the  forenoon.  Harvard  received  a  trifle  more  than  an 
inch,  and  Providence  .75  of  an  inch.  PYom  the  second  belt,  which 
passed  during  the  first  half  of  August,  there  fell  on  the  llth  at 
Buffalo,  .277  in.— on  the  12th  and  13th,  at  Waterford  1.28  in. — 
at  Amherst  1.121  in.,  but  at  Harvard  only  .171.  These  differ- 
ences are  very  considerable,  and  show  that  the  fall  is  heaviest 
from  the  belts  where  their  focus  is  vertical  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  afternoon  and  evening,  and  inconsiderable  where  it  is  vertical 
during  the  early  part  of  the  day.  In  this  there  is  conformity  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  rain  falls,  under  the  great  central  belt  of 
the  tropics.  Configuration  also,  undoubtedly  has  an  influence. 
The  elevations  of  the  interior  of  New  England,  receive  a  larger 
rain-fall  in  summer  than  the  depressed  and  more  level  coast. 
Hills  and  mountains  increase  the  intensity  and  precipitation  of 
the  cloud  belts  as  they  pass  over  them,  and  that  precipitation  is 
still  further  increased,  by  the  surface  atmosphere  and  scud,  which 
are  drawn  to  them  by  the  increased  intensity,  especially  if  that 
surface  atmosphere  is  drawn  from  an  extensive  moist  and  evapo- 
rating surface. 

This  branch  of  the  subject  is  one  of  much  interest  and  would 
justify  a  more  lengthy  development,  if  I  had  space  for  it. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  .  201 

It  is  obvious  that  if  the  successive  passing  belts  for  a  month  or 
more,  should  all  be  of  weak  intensity  and  focal  in  the  early  part 
of  the  day,  over  a  given  area,  that  area  would  have  comparatively 
little  rain,  although  fifty  miles  to  the  east,  and  the  same  distance 
west  of  it,  the  supply  might  be  sufficient.  Configuration,  or  loca- 
tion with  reference  to  large  bodies  of  water,  may  neutralize,  to 
some  extent,  but  not  materially  change  the  result. 

The  materials  and  data  for  a  comprehensive  and  thorough  ex- 
amination of  the  drouths  of  this  country,  do  not  exist.  The  rec- 
ords of  the  weather,  prior  to  this  century  are  too  few  and  imper- 
fect, and  confined  to  a  few  localities.  The  same  is  measurably 
true  of  the  first  three  decades  of  this  century.  The  records  since 
accumulated  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  War  Depart- 
ment, if  continued,  will  furnish  the  next  generation  ample  data 
for  their  elucidation,  and  that  may  throw  very  much  additional 
light  upon  the  whole  subject. 

Something  of  interest  in  this  direction  has  been  done.  Mr. 
Charles  L.  Flint,  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  in 
Massachusetts,  instigated  by  the  extraordinary  drouth  of  1854, 
sought  out  all  the  old  records  which  could  be  found,  examined 
them,  and  embodied  the  result  of  his  examination  in  his  report  to 
the  Board,  for  the  year  1854.  His  history  of  the  drouths,  com- 
mences with  the  settlement  of  the  country,  and  is  very  interesting. 
I  have  tabulated  them,  but  have  not  space  for  the  tables.  About 
50  severe  drouths  are  noticed,  commencing  with  the  year  1623, 
and  extending  to  1854.  Of  these,  nearly  two-thirds  were  sum- 
mer drouths,  occurring  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  1st 
of  September,  ending  usually  with  heavy  rains  in  the  latter  part 
.of  August,  and  apparently  owing,  like  that  of  1854,  to  a  con- 
centration of  the  conditions  on  the  focal  path,  to  the  west  and 
north.  Nearly  one-third  were  spring  drouths,  apparently  due  .to 
the  detention  of  the  focal  path  at  the  south,  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
and  its  undue  extension  to  the  northwest,  to  which  we  have 
also  referred.  A  few  continued  through  the  whole  season,  and 
were  probably  due  to  a  meridional  diversion  of  the  upper  trade, 
like  that  which  occasioned  the  interior  drouth  of  1867.  The  re- 
10 


202  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

maining  ones  were  for  shorter  periods  and  obviously  local.  I 
would  commend  the  history  of  Mr.  Flint  to  a  careful  examina- 
tion by  those  who  feel  an  interest  in  the  subject,  and  de.sire  to  in- 
vestigate it,  in  connection  with  the  data  and  principles  I  have 
given,  and  the  later  and  more  extensive  records  which  are,  or 
will  be,  at  their  command.  Doubtless  there  is  much  of  great 
practical  moment  to  be  yet  discovered  in  that  direction. 

Having  thus  alluded  to  the  irregularities  in  the  operation  of 
the  system,  and  their  influence  upon  the  polar  zones,  I  proceed 
to  inquire  whether  there  are  any  other  facts  which  will  guide  us 
to  their  cause,  and  aid  us  in  the  further  inquiry  yet  to  be  made, 
how  far  can  we  prognosticate  the  weather? 

I  do  not  purpose  to  inquire  yet  into  the  nature  of  the  motive 
force  of  the  system,  but  to  confine  myself,  as  hitherto,  to  the  facts 
and  a  development  of  the  system  as  matter  of  fact ;  and  as  matter 
of  fact,  we  must  enquire  whether  there  are  any  changes  of  the 
sun's  surface,  affecting  its  power,  and  whether  there  is  any  connec- 
tion between  those  changes  and  the  irregular  action  of  the  system. 

Whatever  the  nature  of  the  motive-force  or  its  manner  of  ope- 
ration may  be,  it  is  certain  that  it  emanates  from  the  sun.  The 
semi-annual  transits  of  the  whole  system  from  south  to  north,  and 
from  north  to  south,  following  the  sun  in  its  transits  from  tropic 
to  tropic,  as  well  as  the  time  of  the  diurnal  changes,  showing  in 
a  lesser  degree,  but  with  equal  certainty,  its  influence,  all  point 
unerringly  to  that  great  luminary,  as  the  controlling  source  of  the 
power.  If  the  planets  have  any  influence,  it  has  not  been  detect- 
ed. Of  the  influence  of  the  moon,  I  shall  speak  in  another  place. 

Irregularities  in  the  operation  of  the  system,  must  of  course 
be  referred  to  irregular  action  of  the  power  which  controls  it,  as 
affected  or  modified  by  other  influences.  What  knowledge  have 
we  of  that  irregular  action,  or  of  such  other  influences  ? 

Our  knowledge  of  the  sun" is  yet  imperfect.  We  feel  and  know 
its  heating  power ;  we  know  that  we  are  mainly  dependent  upon 
it  for  light,  and  we  can  detect  and  trace  its  magnetic  influence. 
We  know  that  its  surface  is  not  uniformly  the  same  ;  that  it  is 
sometimes  partiaHy  obscured  by  dark  spots,  and  at  other  times  its 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  203' 

surface  is  mottled  by  dark  dots  or  pores.  The  former  occur  in 
cycles,  and  increase  and  decrease  with  substantial  regularity,  and 
their  connection  with  the  irregularities  in  the  operation  of  the 
atmospheric  system  is  clearly  traceable.  This  part  of  our  sub- 
ject has  great  significance,  in  respect  to  the  laws  of  the  system, 
as  well  as  to  the  elements  of  prognostication,  both  to  be  hereafter 
considered.  Let  us  then  inquire  carefully  into  the  nature  of  these 
irregularities  upon  the  surface  of  the  sun,  their  cycles,  and  their 
connection  with  the  irregular  action  of  the  system. 

"  When  the  sun  is  examined  through  a  telescope,  its  surface  is 
found  to  be  marked  by  black  spots,  edged  with  a  penumbral  fringe 
of  uniform  shade  ;  they  appear  sometimes  singly,  sometimes  in 
groups.  These  spots  are  not  permanent,  but  undergo  changes  of 
form  from  day  to  day,  or  even  from  hour  to  hour,  indicating  a 
gaseous  form  of  matter.  They  seldom  last  longer  than  six  weeks, 
and  often  only  a  few  hours.  They  are  seen  to  break  out  and  en- 
large, or  to  contract  and  disappear,  and  occasionally  one  is  observed 
to  divide  into  several.  When  they  disappear,  the  black  centre  or 
nucleus  always  vanishes  before  the  penumbra.  Mr.  Dawes,  an 
English  observer,  has  noticed  a  violent  whirling  going  on  in  some 
of  the  spots.  Father  Secchi,  of  the  Roma-n  College,  describes 
one  as  presenting  a  filamentous  aspect,  the  filaments  seeming  like 
currents,  and  appearing  to  describe  spiral  curves.  Their  size  is 
sometimes  enormous.  Mayer  records  having  seen  one  in  1758, 
whose  diameter  was  £$  that  of  the  sun,  and  Secchi  thinks  some 
spots  are  deeper  than  the  earth's  radius.  They  are  not  scattered 
promiscuously  over  the  surface  of  the  sun,  but  are  almost  entirely 
confined  to  a  belt  of  25°,  on  either  side  of  the  equator,  the  north- 
ern being  much  the  favorite  hemisphere.  The  zone  of  3°  north, 
and  3°  south  of  the  equator,  is  nearly  barren  of  spots.  This  dis- 
tribution suggests  the  idea  that  they  may  be  connected  somehow 
with  the  rotation  of  the  sun ;  and  Sir  John  Herschel  infers  the 
existence  of  a  movement  in  the  solar  atmosphere,  analagous  to 
our  trade-winds.  According  to  Langier,  they  seem  to  have  a 
motion  of  approach  toward  the  nearest  pole ,  and  these  motions 
are  strikingly  correspondent  on  opposite  sides  of  the  equator,  a 
fact  which  lends  confirmation  to  Herschel's  opinion. 


204 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


"Often  before  disappearing,  the  spots  undergo  lemarkable 
changes.  Ridges  of  light  are  seen  to  dart  across  the  chasm,  split- 
ting it  into  many  parts,  and  these  have  been  known  to  separate 
from  each  other  and  dart  along  in  new  and  disturbed  paths. 
Here  again  is  suggested  an  analogy  to  our  trade-winds.  Schwabe 
of  Dessau,  by  a  most  persevering  study  of  the  spots  for  upward 
of  a  third  of  a  century,  during  which  he  has  recorded  the  num- 
ber visible  on  each  day,  for  nearly  300  days  in  each  year,  arrived 
at  a  remarkable  law  of  periodicity  affecting  them.  They  are 
found  to  gradually  increase  in  number  up  to  a  certain  period,  and 
then  to  decrease  to  a  certain  period,  and  then  to  increase  again, 
and  so  on.  The  cycle  is  completed,  according  to  this  investiga- 
tion, in  10  years." 

There  is  much  in  the  foregoing  extract  from  the  article  "  Sun," 
in  the  New  American  Cyclopedia,  which  is  suggestive.  The 
reader  will  perceive  that  the  sun  presents  to  the  view  of  the 
world,  a  great  central  condition,  analogous  in  some  respects  to 
that  great  central  condition  in  our  own  atmosphere,  which  is 
doubtless  observable  upon  other  peopled  planets.  But  our  busi- 
ness now  is  with  the  spots  and  their  relation  to  our  atmospheric 
system.  The  following  is  the  table  of  Schwabe  referred  10. 


Year. 

Groups 
of  spots. 

Days  sho'ing 
no  spots. 

Days  of  Ob- 
servation. 

1826 

118 

22 

277 

1827 

161 

2 

273 

1828 

226 

0 

282 

1829 

199 

0 

244 

1830 

190 

1 

217 

1831 

149 

3 

239 

1832 

84 

49 

270 

1833 

33 

139 

267 

1834 

61 

120 

273 

1835 

173 

18 

244 

1836 

272 

0 

200 

1837 

333 

0 

168 

1838 

282 

0 

202 

1839 

1B2 

0 

205 

1840 

152 

3 

263 

1841 

1(12 

15 

283 

1842 

08 

64 

307 

1843 

34 

149 

312 

1844 

52 

111 

321 

1845 

114 

29 

332 

1846 

157 

1 

314 

1847 

257 

0 

276 

1848 

330 

0 

278 

1849 

238 

0 

2H5 

1850 

186 

2 

3^8 

THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  205 

To  it  I  append  his  comments  upon  the  connection  between  the  spots 
and  the  weather. 

"  I  observed  large  spots,  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  in  almost  all 
the  years  not  characterized  by  the  minimum  ;  the  largest  appeared 
in  1828,  18H9,  1831,  1&36,  1837,  1838,  1*39,  1847,  1848.  I  re- 
gard all  spots,  whose  diameter  exceeds  50",  as  large,  and  it  is 
only  when  of  such  a  size  that  they  begin  to  be  visible  to  even  the 
keenest  unaided  sight. 

<%  The  spots  are,  undoubtedly,  closely  connected  with  the  forma- 
tion of  faculse,  for  I  have  often  observed  faculre,  or  narben,  formed 
at  the  same  points  from  whence  the  spots  had  disappeared,  while 
new  solar  spots  were  also  developed  within  the  faculae.  Every 
spot  is  surrounded  by  a  more  or  less  bright,  luminous  cloud.  I  do 
not  think  that  the  spots  exert  any  influence  on  the  annual  tem- 
perature. I  register  the  height  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer 
three  times  in  the  course  of  each  day,  but  the  annual  mean  num- 
bers deduced  from  their  observations  have  not  hitherto  indicated 
any  appreciable  connection  between  the  temperature  and  the  num- 
ber of  the  spots.  Nor,  indeed,  would  any  importance  be  due  to  the 
apparent  indication  of  such  a  connection  in  individual  cases,  unless 
the  results  were  found  to  correspond  with  others  derived  from  many 
different  parts  of  the  earth.  If  the  solar  spots  exert  any  slight 
influence  on  our  atmosphere,  my  tables  would,  perhaps,  rather 
tend  to  show  that  the  years  which  exhibit  a  larger  number  of 
spots  had  a  smaller  number  of  fine  days  than  those  exhibiting  few 
spots." 

I  have  copied  the  remarks  of  Schwabe,  in  respect  to  the  effect 
of  the  spots  upon  the  mean  annual  temperature,  that  the  reader 
may  see  the  result  to  which  he  came.  But  his  observations  were 
confined  to  a  single  locality,  and  as  he  on  the  one  hand  was  cor- 
rectly of  opinion  that  if  he  had  discovered  a  connection  it  would 
have  been  of  little  importance  as  an  individual  case,  so,  on  the 
other  hand  it  is  of  little  importance  that  he  did  not  discover  the 
connection,  if  the  fact  is  clearly  discernible  in  other  and  different 
parts  of  the  earth.  That  it  must  exist  is  inferrible  from  the  effect 


206  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

of  obscuration  by  an  eclipse,  and  that  it  is  so  discernible  may, 
I  think,  be  demonstrated. 

In  the  first  place,  1  he  table  demonstrates  that  there  is  a  cycle 
or  period  during  which  the  spots  increase,  and  another  during 
which  they  decrease.  This  appears  from  the  table  of  Schwabe 
to  be  a  ten  year  period.  But  there  is  an  observable  difference  in 
the  regularity  of  their  increase  and  decrease,  and  their  number 
in  the  different  decades. 

In  the  second  place,  the  influence  of  these  spots  upon  the  mag- 
netic effect  of  the  sun  uppn  the  magnetism  of  the  earth,  is  clearly 
ascertained  and  generally  conceded.  All  the  magnetic  elements 
increase  and  decrease  in  strength  pari  passu,  with  the  increase 
and  decrease  of  spots.  Different  investigators  have  arrived  at 
different  results,  in  respect  to  the  length  of  the  period  from  one 
magnetic  maximum  or  minimum  to  another,  but  I  suspect  that 
this  is  owing  mainly  to  the  fact  that  they  have  selected  different 
periods  for  their  observations.  Looking  at  the  table  of  Schwabe, 
we  see  that  there  is  a  difference  in  relation  to  the  number  and 
size  of  the  spots,  in  different  decades,  as  for  example :  the  table 
commences  with  the  year  1826,  when  the  number  of  spots  was 
but  118.  In  1836,  the  number  was  272,  and  in  1846,  it  was  but 
157.  Again  the  greatest  number  of  spots  during  the  decade 
from  1820  to  1830,  was  in  1828,  but  the  greatest  number  for  the 
decade  from  1830  to  1840,  occurred  in  1837,  and  again,  in  the 
decade  between  1840  and  1850,  in  1848.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  maxima  was  in  one  case,  9  years,  and  in  the  other  11. 
I  think  scientists  have  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  difference  of 
time  between  the  maxima  may  be  more  or  less  than  10  years, 
while  the  mean  period  may  be,  as  it  appears  to  be,  a  decadal  one. 

The  effect  of  these  spots  upon  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
year,  upon  the  seasons,  and  upon  many  of  the  atmospheric  con- 
ditions,— although  somewhat  masked  by  the  operation  of  other 
causes,  and  although  the  observations  of  Schwabe  were  in  impor- 
tant respects,  imperfect,  and  do  not  afford  all  the  information 
which  can  be  obtained  in  that  direction,  because  they  do  not  give 
the  amount  of  daily  or  yearly  obscuration, — is  clearly  traceable.  I 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


207 


trust  the  time  is  not  distant,  when  the  sum  of  the  daily  and  yearly 
obscuration — the  gist  of  the  matter — will  be  ascertained. 

The  spots  were  not  as  numerous  during  the  decade  from  1820 
to  1830,  as  during  the  subsequent  decades.  That  was  a  very 
warm  decade,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
ranging  several  degrees  higher,  than  during  the  preceding  or  sub- 
sequent one.  It  was  consequently  a  peiiod  when  epidemics  were 
prevalent,  and  the  cholera  spread  from  India  all  over  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  arriving  in  this  country  in  1832.  During  the  sub- 
sequent decade,  which  I  will  call  for  the  purpose  of  distinction, 
the  solar  decade,  from  1833  to  1843,  the  spots  were  more  numer- 
ous, and  the  season  correspondingly  cold  and  peculiar,  in  both 
hemispheres.  I  copy  from  a  meteorological  register  kept  at  Rio 
Janeiro,  in  lat  22°  S.,  a  locality  as  little  likely  to  be  affected  by 
disturbing  influences  as  any,the  following  means  of  tempera- 
ture from  1832  to  1843,  comparing  them  with  the  spots,  adding  a 
few  others  taken  from  tables  published  in  this  country: 


YEARS. 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1833 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1840  1841 

152  1  102 
77.7  ^770 
51.2  61.2 
47.8  |478 
55.9  55  9 
41.093943 
44.82  42.93 
| 

1842 

68 
783 
ISA 
475 

574 
38.82 
43.39 

Groups  of  spots  

84 
77.2 
51.5 
47.S 
56.1 
41.93 
45.85 

33 
79.5 
51.5 
48.5 
56.8 
41.34 
47.95 

51 
77.3 
510 

48.5 
55.4 
41.16 
47.09 

173 

7«5.7 
49.6 
470 
51.9 
40.08 
43.41 

272 

76.8 
49.6 
45.2 
54.6 
37.03 
42.96 

333 

75.5 
49.1 
46.1 
54,9 
36.46 
43.96 

282 
76.7 
503 
474 
53.7 
37.90 
41.75 

162 

76.0 
51.2 
48.1 
65.6 
41.71 
4720 

Ann'l  Tern  .  at  R.  Janeiro 
'      Ft.  Columbus 
'      New  Bedford,. 
'      St.  Louis,  
'      Ft.  Brady,.... 
'      Ft.  Snelling,.. 

A  comparison  of  the  number  of  spots  during  the  solar  decade, 
from  1843  to  1854,  or  so  long  as  Schwabe  observed,  at  a  few  se- 
lected points,  least  liable  to  be  affected  by  transient  causes,  gives 
the  following  result : 


YEARS. 

1844 

1845 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1 
1850  1851 



Solar  spots,  

52 
6384 
42.62 
52.03 
56.07 
65.97 

114 
63.31 

45.70 
53.88 
57.20 
55.71 

157 

6408 
48.23 
52.28 
56.76 
55.86 

257 
61.06 
41.83 
52.32 

52.95 

330 
61.56 
42.46 
52.34 
55.00 
53.49 

238 
61.60 
42.27 
5022 
54.00 
53.13 

186  1 
62  03  62.98 
44.3046.M 
50.93  52.15 
55.4856.01 
53.72  54.63 
i 

Ft.  Washita,  
Ft.  Snelling,  

Ft.  Columbus,  

Jefferson  Barracks,  
St.  Louis  Arsenal  

208  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

I  have  selected  the  foregoing  observations  of  the  mean  temper- 
ature, at  points  where  I  think  the  accounts  are  most  reliable,  and 
least  influenced  by  other  causes.  Implicit  reliance  cannot  be 
placed  upon  such  observations,  as  will  be  apparent  from  compar- 
ison of  the  observations  at  St.  Louis,  by  Dr.  Engleman,  and  those 
at  St.  I^ouis  Arsenal,  which  are  but  three  miles  distant  from  each 
other,  and  at  Jefferson  Barracks  which  is  ten  miles  from  St.  Louis. 

Two  things  are  very  apparent  from  careful  observation  of  these 
tables.  In  the  first  place,  that  there  is  a  decrease  of  the  mean 
annual  temperature,  corresponding  to  an  increase  of  the  solar 
spots,  and  a  corresponding  increase  of  temperature  as  these  spots 
decrease.  And  second,  that  the  temperature  rises  highest  during 
the  solar  decade,  when  the  spots  are  least  numerous.  These 
movements  in  temperature  although  they  do  not  conform  precise- 
ly to  the  increase  and  decrease  of  spots,  show  clearly  a  connec- 
tion between  them.  It  may,  and  probably  will  be  ascertained 
hereafter,  that  these  irregularities  which  may  be  attributed  to 
other  causes,  are  owing  to  irregularities  in  the  size  of  the  spots, 
for  you  may  have  observed  that  Schwabe  gives  the  number  of 
groups  which  he  observed  during  the  year,  but  does  not  give 
their  comparative  size,  nor  furnish  as  I  have  said,  any  reliable 
comparison  of  the  amount  of  obscuration. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  is  important  you  should  un- 
derstand a  fact  which  is  disclosed  by  the  tables.  In  every  decade, 
the  year  preceding  or  succeeding  the  minimum  of  spots,  or  that 
in  which  the  minimum  occurs,  is  colder  than  the  latter  year. 

In  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  Weather,"  I  ventured  to  assume, 
that  the  fact  might  be  owing  to  a  more  extended  transit  to  the 
south,  of  the  atmospheric  system  in  winter,  when  the  spots  were 
least  numerous.  The  depression  of  the  thermometer  in  January 
and  February,  or  February  and  March,  at  stations  where  other 
causes  were  least  likely  to  operate,  renders  that  assumption  highly 
probable.  The  following  table  of  temperature  in  February,  taken 
from  the  observations  at  Fort  Snelling,  which  lies  so  far  to  the 
N.W.  as  to  be  less  influenced  by  other  causes,  tends  to  show  this  : 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  209 


In  1822  the  mean  temperature  for  February  was 
"  1823  cold  year, 
"  1824 

19.92 
5.95 
14.20 

1  1  04 

«  1832  cold  year, 
"  1833      - 

6.46 
20.93 

"  1842  it  was          ... 
"  1843  cold  year, 
"  1844           

19.54 
2.01 
22.33 

And  the  same  fact  was  true  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  the 
other  representative  stations  selected. 

Since  that  work  was  written,  Livingstone's  travels  in  South 
Africa  have  been  published.  It  appears  from  his  description, 
already  copied,  that  once  in  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  years,  such  a 
transit  of  the  atmospheric  system  is  experienced  there,  and  the 
central  zone  of  rains  is  carried  down  over  the  Kalahari  Desert, 
producing  a  periodical  and  extraordinary  growth  of  wild  melons. 

The  importance  which  may  justly  be  attached  to  this  part  of 
the  subject,  will  justify  and  require  a  more  extensive  and  careful 
examination  of  it.  Reliable  tables  of  temperature  for  the  last 
century  were  very  few,  and  for  this  century  also,  in  the  western 
states,  until  the  practice  of  recording  observations  was  instituted 
at  the  Military  Posts  of  the  country,  by  the  War  Department  in 
1826.  Mr.  Blodget  in  his  Climatology,  has  selected  from  such 
records  as  were  accessible  and  reliable,  and  I  copy  from  him. 
The  earliest  he  gives  for  ten  consecutive  years  is  from  1750  to 
1759  inclusive,  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

1750  -  65°.0         1755     -        -        -         63°.6 

1751  -     66°.7         1756          -        -        -     67°.0 

1752  -         -  67°.3         1757     -  -         65°.7 

1753  -  -     66°.8         1758      '   -        -        -     64°.3 

1754  -  67°.8         1759     -  65°.l 

Comparing  this  with  the  subsequent  observations  made  under 


210 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


the  War  Department  at  Fort  Moultrie,  of  which  the  annual  mean 
was  66°.58,  and  making  due  allowance  for  the  location  of  Charles- 
ton upon  the  sea,  and  where  it  is  sometimes  reached  by  the  cen- 
tral belt  in  midsummer,  the  effect  of  the  spots  is  plainly  discern- 
ible. There  is  an  increase  from  65°  to  67°,  and  a  decrease  to 
65°  again.  The  depression  in  1755  seems  to  indicate  that  there 
was  an  extreme  southern  transit  in  that  year,  as  well  as  in  1753. 
The  next  early  observations  for  ten  consecutive  years,  are  at 
Philadelphia,  and  are  as  follows : 

53°.2 

-  51°.5 
52°.0 

-  52°.0 


1767  - 
1768 
1769  - 
1770 
1771  - 
1772 


51°.8 
-  52°.5 


1773  - 
1774 
1775  - 
1776 
1777  - 


54°.7 
52°.9 
54°.4 
53°.4 
51°.0 


Here  again,  the  increase  and  decrease,  though  more  irregular, 
are  clearly  discernible.  The  decrease  during  a  year  of  the  warm 
period,  happened  in  1774,  the  fourth  instead  of  the  second  or 
third  year  of  the  decade.  Indeed  the  whole  decadal  period  seems 
to  be  thrown  forward  one  year,  as  we  shall  see  that  it  clearly  was 
in  one  or  two  subsequent  decades. 

The  next  most  reliable  observations  cited  by  him,  were  those 
made  by  Dr.  Holyoke,  covering  the  period  from  1786  to  1825  in- 
clusive. I  copied  from  those  observations  in  the  "  Philosophy  of 
the  Weather,"  and  arranged  them  as  follows : 


Cold  Period. 

Warm 

Period. 

Cold 

Period. 

Warm 

Period. 

1786.  .  . 

...480.53 

1791... 

...48°  .963 

1796  
1797  

...48°.  678 
48°  135 

1801 

50°  432 

1787 

47°  88 

1799 

.  48°  44 

18A9 

50°  794 

1788  

470.6761793  

50°  .96 

1798  

49°  .471  1803 

50°  24 

1789 

.470.68 

1794  
1795  

....50°.768 
....50°.173 

1799  

48°.  291 

1804  
1805  

....48°  .328 
.  .  .  .50°.792 

1790  

.  .  .  .460.53 

1800  

49°  .989 

Mean  of  period47e>.659  Mean  

,  ,490.901 

Mean  ,  ,  , 

480910 

Mean  

....50.117 

1806  

...47°  982  1811  

.  .  .  .60°.  76 

1816  
1817  
1818  
1819  

47°.113 
46°  .277 
48°.  009 
50°  75 

1821 

48°  15 

1807 

48°  132 

1812  
1813.  .. 

.  .  .  .45°  .28 
.  ..47°  702 

1822  
1823 

....49°.  81 
47°  58 

1808 

49°  485 

1809  
1810  

....47°  .92    1814  
....49°  .001  1815  

....46°  .279 
.  .  .  .47°.  607 

1824 

49°  25 

1820  

48°.70 

1825  

....50°.  99 

Mean 

48(?.605 

Mean  

47°.925 

Mean,  .  ,  , 

.,       48°.169 

Mean  

....49°.  15 

THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  211 

The  observations  of  Dr.  Holyoke  show  a  decided  difference  in 
three  of  the  four  decades  which  they  embrace,  thus,  from  '86  to 
'95  the  differences  are  very  striking,  and  so  they  are  from  '96  to 
1805.  But  the  first  half  of  the  decade,  from  1810  to  1820,  was 
peculiarly  and  exceptionally  cold ;  indeed  the  year  1812,  was 
much  the  coldest  of  any  embraced  in  the  tables,  and  both  1813 
and  1815  were  below  the  mean.  The  peculiar  depression  during 
that  part  of  the  decade,  has  been  attributed  to  volcanic  action, 
and  there  is  much  reason  to  believe,  correctly.  Certainly,  earth- 
quakes were,  so  to  speak,  epidemic  during  that  period,  in  this 
country  and  elsewhere.  Turning  to  the  table  of  volcanic  action 
and  of  earthquakes,  found  in  the  report  of  the  British  Association 
for  1854,  we  find  that  year  was  remarkable  for  earthquakes  in 
the  United  States  and  South  America.  In  December,  1811, 
earthquakes  commenced  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  Ohio, 
and  Arkansas,  and  were  felt  also  at  places  in  Tennessee,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri,  Indiana,  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida,  though  not  so  severely  east  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  ;  and  they  continued  to  occur  till  1813.  About  the  same 
time  they  commenced  in  Caracas,  and  in  March,  1812,  became 
severe  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  northern  section  of  South 
America,  and  in  the  Atlantic.  No  such  general  and  continued 
succession  of  earthquakes  occurred  during  the  other  periods  em- 
braced in  the  tables,  and  the  mean  of  the  following  five  years  was 
very  low,  embracing  the  memorable  cold  summer  of  1816.  But 
I  shall  consider  the  influence  of  volcanic  action  upon  the  seasons, 
in  another  place. 

Schwabe  did  not  commence  his  observations  till  1826,  and  we 
have  no  reliable  telescopic  observations  of  the  number  and  fre- 
quency of  the  spots  during  the  second  decade  of  the  century,  but 
there  is  much  historic  evidence  to  show  that  they  were  numerous 
and  large,  and  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  during  the  years 
1815,  16-17,  when  the  depression  of  temperature  was  very  great. 
Few  traditions  are  more  clearly  remembered. 

These  considerations  would  seem  to  be  sufficient,  to  show  that 
the  exceptional  depression  in  the  decade  from  1810  to  1820,  does 


212  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

not  materially  affect  the  other  evidence  which  tends  clearly  to 
establish  a  connection  between  the  spots  upon  the  sun,  or  their 
cause,  and  the  mean,  annual  temperature.  And  it  accords  with 
analogy  that  obscuration  should  diminish  power  and  effect. 

But  the  evidence  we  have  adduced — and  much  other  of  like 
character  might  be  adduced — shows  three  facts,  which  seem  to 
militate  against  the  connection : 

I.  In  the  first  place  the  tables  show  an  exceptional  cold  year 
in  the  first  half  of  each  decade.  This  I  have  supposed  to  be  owing 
to  a  more  extended  transit  of  the  great  central  condition  to  the 
south,  and  a  consequent  greater  winter  depression.  The  truth  of 
the  supposition,  on  further  investigation,  seems  perfectly  apparent. 

Such  a  depression  is  found  during  either  the  second,  third  or 
fourth  years  of  every  decade,  except  in  the  fifth  decade  of  the 
17th  century  at  Charleston,  when  it  was  in  1755.  In  the  first 
decade  of  this  century,  it  was  in  the  fourth  year,  or  1804.  In 
the  next  it  was  in  the  second,  or  1812.  In  the  next  it  was  in  the 
third,  or  1823.  In  the  next  it  was  in  the  second,  or  1832.  In  the 
next  it  was  in  the  third  year,  or  1843.  And  in  the  next  it  was  in 
the  second,  or  1852.  The  last  is  shown  by  the  following  tables : 

Fort  Columbus,  New  York  Harbor,         -         -         1850     50.93 


Fort  Snelling, 


Jefferson  Barracks,   - 


u         «     _     _ 

-  1851 

52.15 

u         «   _     _ 

1852 

51.40 

a         « 

-  1853 

52.24 

of  33  years, 

- 

51.69 

.... 

1850 

43.5 

-  1851 

46.5 

_    -    _    . 

1852 

43.7 

. 

-  1853 

46.7 

of  35  years,  - 

- 

44.54 

- 

-  1850 

53.7 

_ 

1851 

56.0 

_ 

-  1852 

54.5 

- 

1853 

55.1 

_ 

-  1854 

58.3 

of  26  vears. 

_ 

55.46 

THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  213 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory,  -                             1850  60.23 

"  -     1851  61.12 

"         "             "             "      -  1852  59.44 

"         "            "            "  -     1853  60.43 

"         "             "             «      -  1854  62.12 

Mean  of  27  years,  -  60.81 

Fort  Washita,  Indian  Territory,  -                             1850  62.3 

"           «             "             "  -     1851  62.98 

"           "             "             "  1852  60.32 

«           "             «            «  -     1853  61.14 

"           «             u             "  1854  63.18 

Mean  of  12  years,  62.21 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  1850  51.94 

"               «                 "     -  -     1851  53.9 

«               «                 «  1852  51.44 

«               «                 «     -  -     1853  53.02 

«              «                «  1854  55.84 

Mean  of  24  years,  -  52.78 
I  add  a  table  of  the  annual  mean  temperature  of  the  state  of 

Iowa,  for  the  years  1850  to  1856  inclusive,  contained  in  a  report 

of  the  climate  of  Iowa,  made  by  Theodore  S.  Parvin,  of  Musca- 

tine,  published  in  1857. 

1850  -      .  -        -    46.28  1854                           -  49.81 

1851  46.66         1855     -  47.92 

1852  -        -        -     46.65         1856  -    44.73 

1853  47.31 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  depression  in  1852  is  scarcely  per- 
ceptible in  Iowa,  although  very  obvious  south,  west,  north  and 
east  of  it.  But  the  annual  increase  and  decrease  is  very  apparent. 

We  come  now  to  an  explanation  of  the  depression  thus  found 
in  the  first  half  of  the  decade.  I  have  already  alluded,  as  evi- 
dence that  it  was  occasioned  by  a  southern  transit,  to  the  fact 
stated  by  Livingstone,  that  once  in  ten  or  eleven  years,  as  he  says 
in  one  place — eleven  or  twelve,  as  he  says  in  another — the  Desert 
of  Kalahari  receives  a  supply  of  rain,  by  reason  of  the  excessive 


214  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

transit  of  the  central  belt  to  the  south.  That  fall  occurred  in  1 852, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  depression  occurred  in  this  country  for 
that  decade.  The  language  of  Livingstone,  which  I  repeat  is  as 
follows :  "  Having  parted  with  Sechele,  we  skirted  along  the  Kal- 
ahari Desert,  and  sometimes  within  its  borders,  giving  the  Boers 
a  wide  berth.  A  larger  fall  of  rain  than  usual  had  occurred  in 
1852,  and  that  was  the  completion  of  a  cycle  of  eleven  or  twelve 
years,  at  which  the  same  phenomenon  is  reported  to  have  hap- 
pened on  three  occasions.  An  unusually  large  crop  of  melons 
had  appeared  in  consequence."  This  not  only  corresponds  with 
the  depression  in  this  country  of  that  year,  but  corresponds  in 
another  particular,  for  the  depressions  are  sometimes  ten  and 
sometimes  eleven  years  apart. 

The  depressions  of  1832  and  1843,  which  are  the  most  distinct- 
ly marked,  were  eleven  years  apart,  and  were  accompanied  by 
unusual  depressions  in  January  and  February  both,  at  all  the 
stations  north  of  the  usual  winter  line  of  a  curving  counter  trade. 
Thus  at  Watervliet  Arsenal,  in  New  York,  in  1832,  both  Jan- 
uary and  February  were  below  the  mean.  The  same  was  true 
at  Fortress  Monroe  in  Virginia,  at  Fort  Mackinaw  in  Michigan, 
and  in  short  at  all  the  stations  north  and  west  of,  and  adjoining 
the  focal  winter  line  of  the  Atlantic  conditions,  while  at  all  the 
stations  in  the  S.E.  portion  of  the  United  States,  then  covered  by 
the  focal  path  of  the  Atlantic  conditions,  the  temperature  was  no* 
below  the  mean,  and  in  many  of  them,  was  above  it.  Thus  the 
mean  annual  temperature  at  Fort  Johnson,  in  North  Carolina,  is 
65.68,  the  temperature  in  1832  was  66.22. 

Augusta  Arsenal,  Georgia,  mean  temperature,  -         64.01 

«  «  "         for  1832,  -     64.64 

Fort  Marion,  St.  Augustine,  mean  temperature,  -         69.61 

«  «  "  «  for  1832,  -  70.60 

Fort  Jessup,  Louisiana,  mean  temperature,  -  -  66.34 

«  «  «  for  1832,  -  66.16 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory,  mean  temperature,  -  60.81 

«         «  "  "         for  1832,         -         •         -     61.76 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  215 

In  this  connection  there  is  a  still  more  striking  fact  demonstra- 
ting the  truth  of  the  assumption.  At  all  the  stations  in  the  north- 
western states,  beyond  the  cold  area,  which  adjoins  the  curving 
focal  path  of  the  conditions  for  the  winter,  on  the  north  and  west, 
the  temperature  was  also  actually  above  the  mean.  Thus,  at 

Fort  Leavenworth,  temperature,     -  -  54.77 

Mean  24  years,  ...  52.78 

Fort  Snelling,  temperature,  -  -  -  45.85 

Mean  35  years,  ...  44.54 

Fort  Crawford,  Wisconsin,  temperature,  -  -  47.66 

Mean  19  years,  -  -  47.63 

Fort  Winnebago,  temperature,  -  -  -  50.32 

Mean  16  years,  -  44.80 

Fort  Brady,  temperature,  -  41.93 

Mean  31  years,  -  -  40.37 

Fort  Gratiot,  Michigan,  temperature,  -  -  47.93 

Mean  17  years,  -  46.29 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  in  all  the  stations  high  up  in  the 
N.  W.  the  temperature  was  higher  than  the  mean,  owing  undoubt- 
edly to  a  corresponding  descent  of  the  path  of  the  Pacific  condi- 
tions which  cross  the  continent  in  winter,  covering  Oregon  and 
California,  and  the  depression  was  confined  to  the  curving  area, 
lying  between  the  winter  focal  paths  of  the  two  systems  of  condi- 
tions. 

With  reference  to  the  depression  of  1832,  little  evidence  can 
be  derived  from  the  tables  of  precipitation,  for  the  observations 
at  that  time  were  very  limited,  and  there  are  none  on  record  for 
California  or  the  western  coast.  Records  of  rain-fall  were  not 
kept  at  the  Posts  of  the  United  States,  until  1836. 

The  same  state  of  things  occurred  again  in  1843.  While  the 
depression  was  distinctly  marked  upon  the  tables  we  have  given, 
there  was  little  or  no  depression  in  the  southeastern  states. 
Thus  at 

Fort  Johnson,  N.  C.,  temperature,  -       51.40     mean,  51.69 

Augusta  Arsenal,  "  -  64.51        «       64.01 


216  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Oglethorpe  Barracks,  temperature,  -  67.19  mean,  67.44 
Fort  Marion,  St.  Augustine,  temperature,  68.77  "  69.61 
Fort  Barrancas,  Florida,  "  68.44  "  68.74 

Striking  beyond  the  curving  focal  paths  of  the  winter  Atlantic 
conditions,  we  find  however  the  depression  distinctly  marked. 
Thus  at 

Fort  Smith,  Arkansas,  temperature,    -  56.83     mean  60.02 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory,  temperature,  58.84  "  60.81 
Fort  Atkinson,  Arkansas,  "  41.66  "  45.51 

Fort  Scott,  Missouri,  "  52.48       «       54.30 

Jefferson  Barracks,  Missouri,  "  52.26        "       55.46 

Detroit,  Michigan,  "  45.57        «       47.25 

Watervliet  Arsenal.  N.  Y.,  "  47.65        "       48.07 

Fortress  Monroe,  Va.,  "  57.47        "       58.89 

On  the  Pacific  coast,  we  have  no  data  for  comparison  in  respect 
to  the  depression  of  1832  and  1843,  or  any  of  the  previous  ones, 
but  in  1852  there  was  an  unusual  descent  of  the  focal  path  of  the 
Pacific  conditions,  marked  by  an  unusual  supply  of  rain.  And 
so  in  February,  1854,  when  the  focal  path  of  the  Atlantic  condi- 
tions in  the  United  States,  was  carried  very  low  by  an  extreme 
southern  transit,  there  fell  the  unusual  quantity  of  8T%  inches  of 
rain  at  San  Francisco,  and  the  evidence  seems  clearly  to  estab- 
lish a  connection  between  the  two. 

But  it  may  be  well  here  to  look  a  little  more  particularly  at 
the  state  of  things  upon  the  Pacific  coast.     Mr.  Hittell,  in  his  re- 
cent work  upon  California,  gives  us  the  following  table  of  annual 
rain-fall  at  different  points  in  that  state  and  Oregon. 
Astoria,  Oregon,     -  inches  86.35 

Fort  Humboldt,  Humboldt  Bay,  California,        -  34.56 

Fort  Reading,  Sacramento  valley,   -  29.02 

San  Francisco,  -  -  21.41 

Sacramento,  -  -  21.73 

Fort  Miller,  San  Joachim  valley,  -  22.18 

San  Diego,  Southwestern  corner  of  state,     -  -  10.43 

Fort  Yuma,  about  1 60  miles  east  by  south  of  San  Diego, 

and  in  the  S.E.  corner  of  the  state,  3.15 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


217 


inches  44.15 

Latitude,  46°  10' 

u      15.03 

"         40°  46' 

"      12.44 

"         40°  30' 

"      12.11 

"         38°  34' 

•     "      11.33 

37°  48' 

"        9.79 

37°  00' 

•     "        5.90 

"         32°  42' 

"          .72 

«         32°  32' 

This  table  shows  several  important  facts.     First,  that  there  is 
a  gradual  lessening  of  the  annual  rain-fall,  from  Astoria  down  to 
San  Diego.     This  will  appear  more  strikingly  perhaps  if  we  take 
the  rain-fall  for  the  winter,  viz. : 
Astoria, 

Fort  Humboldt, 
Fort  Reading, 
Sacramento, 
San  Francisco, 
Fort  Miller, 
San  Diego, 
Fort  Yuma, 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  regular  decrease  with  the  lati- 
tude, the  winter  focus  of  the  path  of  the  Pacific  conditions,  be- 
ing as  high  as  Astoria.  The  table  heretofore  inserted,  page  113, 
from  another  source,  and  for  a  different  period,  differing  somewhat 
in  amounts  because  covering  a  less  period  of  time,  shows  the 
position  of  the  focal  or  center  path  of  the  conditions  as  at  Astoria 
in  the  winter,  and  eleven  degrees  further  north  at  Sitka  in  summer. 
If  now  that  focal  path  is  from  any  cause  shifted  farther  down  the 
coast,  there  will  be  a  corresponding  increase  at  every  point  except 
Astoria,  of  the  annual  rain-fall.  And  that  is  precisely  the  effect 
which  is  produced  by  the  extreme  southern  transits  in  the  first 
half  of  each  decade.  In  1852  and  again  in  1854,  the  fall  was 
excessive  at  San  Diego,  the  extreme  southern  point.  This  is 
shown  by  the  following  table  ; 


1 

1 

1 

t 

i 

a 

s 

I-J 

j»> 

3 

1-9 

1 

p. 

1 

j 

o 

| 

1 

1 

1850 

0.00 

1.13 

1.00 

0.09 

0.00 

068 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.19 

2.82 

1.93 

7.84 

18511  003 

1.51 

0.34 

0.87 

0.71 

001 

0.00 

0.00 

0.02 

0.01 

0-25 

3.74 

7.49 

1852 

0.58 

1.84 

1.87 

0.85 

0.32 

0.00 

0.00 

0.40 

0.00 

0.06 

1.45 

4.50 

11.87 

1853 

0.50 

0.20 

1.52 

0.25 

2.10 

0.05 

0.00 

0.21 

0.00 

0.00 

1.28 

1.77 

7.88 

18541  1.46 

2.56 

2.14 

0.75 

0.21 

0.02 

0.07 

135 

0.13 

0.01 

0.02 

3.34 

12.06 

185512.40 

4.83 

1.53 

1.82 

0.10 

0.00 

0.00 

o.oo 

0.00 

0.15 

2.23 

0.31 

13.37 

1856 

0.66 

2.04  1.97  !2.48 

0.27 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.05 

0.00 

1.47 

1.20 

10.14 

1857  '0.21 

2.12 

0.00 

0.00 

0.12 

0.00 

0.00- 

0.00 

0.00 

0.64 

2.25 

1.38 

6.72 

1858 

1.87 

0.4511.60 

0.27 

0.00 

0.15 

0.00 

0.03 

0.11 

0.49 

0.32 

3.65 

8.94 

1859 

Record  incomplete. 

218 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


See  the  marked  manner  and  extent  of  the  rain  fall — increas- 
ing rapidly  to  1855  inclusive,  and  then  decreasing  as  rapidly  to 
the  close. 

The  record  for  Fort  Yuma  is  imperfect,  but  I  give  it  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  its  peculiar  position  between  the  two  systems 
of  conditions  in  May  and  June. 

Fort  Yuma,  California. 


1 

i 

J3 
g 

• 

*j 

a. 
^ 

1 

«j 
a 

3 

>-s 

& 

9 

>-9 

1 

"p< 
o 

OU 

1 

> 
o 
£ 

1 

1 

1851 

OOf) 

001 

000 

027 

1853 

0.00 

0.28 

0.33 

1.45 

0.00 

0.35 

004 

1858 

0.00 

0.00 

0.01 

0.00 

000 

0.00 

0.25 

0.69 

0.13 

0.00 

0.18 

0.52 

1.78 

1N54 

0.00 

028 

0.80 

0.00 

0.00 

000 

0.01 

2.37 

0.17 

0.30 

0.00 

0.57 

4.50 

law 

0.12 

0.26 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.10 

o.oo 

0.22 

0.10 

0.00 

18*6 

0.00 

0.00 

0.5') 

().(X) 

0.00 

0.00 

0.48 

0.00 

0.36 

0.00 

0.19 

000 

1.53 

1857 

0.00 

0.30 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

000 

0.00 

000 

0.00 

0.00 

0.30 

1858 

0.00 

1.06 

().(K) 

().(X) 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

1.03 

2.09 

1859 

0.00 

2.09 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.50 

0.00 

0.42 

1.83 

0.00 

4.88 

Fort  Laramie. 


____ 

1 

1 
~ 

| 

d 
a, 

< 

H 

« 
a 

3 

i-S 

>> 

"3 
>-> 

ti 

3 
<1 

! 

0 

i 

1 

§ 
f* 

1852 

0.72 

1.10 

1.55 

1.25 

7.29 

4.08 

1.88 

1.46 

2.74 

1.70 

6.42 

123 

3142 

1853 

0.08 

0.57  i  1.78  4.53 

1219 

4.95 

1.86 

0.55 

2.80 

06S 

0.08 

071 

30.78 

1854  0.18  0.40:0.80  3.98 

4.46 

3.67 

3.26 

1.27 

160 

1.86 

0.73 

0.05 

22.26 

18550.04  1.08  1.41J0.65 
1856:055  045  1  1.75  0.34 

2.79 
3.51 

3.25 

0.82 

1.45 
4.15 

2.93 
2.55 

339 
0.23 

0.62 
0.29 

0.18 
0.21 

120 
0.17 

18.99 
15.02 

185710.33 

0.53  0.00 

0.07 

1.45 

0-12 

0.04 

1.87 

0.10 

1.53 

0.05 

0.06 

6.15 

1  >68  0.00 

0.02.0.02  0.09 

1.12 

0.80 

1.14 

1.81 

0.70 

1.43 

0.32 

0.45 

790 

1859  0.01 

0.00  1  0.00  0.18 

2.11 

0.03 

1.33 

0.57 

0.49 

0.22 

1.12 

0.20 

6.26 

1         I 

I  give  also  the  record  for  Fort  Laramie  in  Nebraska,  conform- 
ing substantially  in  their  results.  But  May,  1853,  is  erroneous. 

The  fact  of  a  depression  of  the  system,  cannot,  as  we  have 
said,  be  reliably  shown,  by  the  fall  of  rain,  for  want  of  data  for 
the  whole  country,  prior  to  1843.  In  respect  to  that  year  how- 
ever, the  records  of  the  various  posts  are  sufficiently  full  and  en- 
tirely corroborative.  On  the  southern  states  to  which  the  focal 
path  of  the  conditions  was  carried  by  the  extreme  southern  tran- 
sit of  the  central  condition,  the  rain-fall  was  greater  than  the 
mean.  Thus  at 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  219 

Oglethorpe  Barracks,  Ga.,  Feb.,  1843,  rain    2.03       mean,  2.18 
"  "  "    March,   "         "     12.51  «     7.11 

Fort  Brooks,  Florida,  Feb.,      "         "       5.70  "     3.01 

"  "  March,  "         «       7.20  "     3.37 

Mt.  Vernon  Arsenal,  Ala.,  Feb.,      "         "       5.90  "     6.04 

"  u  "       March,  "         «       9.22  "     4.59 

Fort  Moultrie,  S.  C.,  Feb.,       "         "       2.09  «     2.33 

"  March,  «         «     10.52  «     4.06 

New  Orleans,  La.,  Feb.,       «         "       3.80  «     2.90 

«  "  March,  "         «       5.31  "     3.90 

West  and  north  of  and  adjoining  the  then  path  of  the  condi- 
tions, we  have  the  following  deficiencies  which  show  as  well  the 
unusual  descent  in  February,  as  the  lingering  return  in  March. 

Fort  Towson,           February  rain,  00.25  mean  2.97 
March          «     -  3.35       "     4.38 
FortJessup,            February      "  1.41       «      2.76 
March           "    -  3.25       "      5.02 
Fort  Smith,             February      «  -               0.26       "      2.17 
"                       March    *       «     -  2.29       «      2.92 
Fort  Gibson,            February      "  0.70       "      2.26 
"                       March           "     -  J.31       "     2.54 
Fort  Scott,  Mo.,      February,     "  0.20       «      1.18 
"             "         March          «     -  1.75       "      1.79 
Jefferson  Barracks,February      "  -               1.75       "      2.04 
"                 March          «     -  2.30       «     332 
St.  Louis  Arsenal,  February     "  1.30       "      3.37 
March          "    -  2.29       «     3.82 
And  here  in  connection  with  this  subject,  I  re-insert  the  dia- 
gram showing  the   situation   of  the  paths  of  the  conditions  or 
belts  of  rains  in   February,  1854,  with  the  intervening  compara- 
tively cold  and  dry  area,  that  you  may  have  it  under  your  eye  in 
connection  with  the  foregoing  tables.  Doubtless  they  were  in  the 
same  situation  substantially,  in  32,  43  and  52. 


220 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    37. 


From  this  examination  it  appears  that  the  first  of  the  three  facts 
does  not  militate  against  the  proposition  advanced,  and  attempted 
to  be  proved  by  the  tables,  but  an  investigation  of  its  cause,  di- 
rectly confirms  it. 

The  second  fact  is  more  apparent  than  real,  although  the  years 
1813  and  1814  did  not  show  such  an  increase  of  temperature  at 
Salem  as  is  shown  in  other  decades.  The  temperature  was  yet 
far  in  advance  of  the  depression  of  1812,  and  fully  up  to  the 
mean.  Observations  for  those  years  are  very  meagre.  Those  of 
New  Bedford  show  the  years  to  have  been  up  to  the  mean  there, 
and  as  high  as  that  of  1844,  but  New  Bedford  feels  the  influence 
of  the  Gulf  stream  and  is  not  a  representative  station.  We  have 
no  record  of  the  spots  for  that  decade,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  history 
that  they  were  very  numerous,  large,  and  observable  by  the  naked 
eye,  especially  in  1816,  which  was  the  coldest  year  in  the  cen- 
tury, except  1812.  There  was  frost  during  every  month  of  the 
year,  and  the  corn  crop  was  generally  lost.  Now  as  it  appears 
from  the  record  of  the  spots  which  we  have,  that  they  are  variable 
in  number  and  effect  in  different  decades,  and  as  we  have  it  as  a 
matter  of  tradition  and  of  history,  that  they  were  more  numerous 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  221 

during  that  decade  than  in  any  previous  one,  and  much  larger  or 
they  could  not  have  been  so  extensively  seen  with  the  naked  eye, 
we  are  fully  justified  in  assigning  the  unusual  depression  of  tem- 
perature, in  that  decade,  to  that  cause,  and  this  apparent  excep- 
tion also  proves  the  rule. 

So  too  of  the  unusual  elevation  of  the  temperature  from  1825 
to  1830.  We  have  a  full  explanation  of  that  in  the  comparative 
infrequency  of  the  spots  and  that  apparent  exception  also  proves 
the  rule. 

Again,  there  seems  to  be  an  exception  in  the  decade  from  1840 
to  1850.  The  temperature  continues  to  rise  until  and  including 
the  year  1846,  but  when  we  turn  to  the  table  of  spots,  we  find 
that  they  increased  with  less  rapidity  than  in  other  decades,  and 
there  again,  the  exception  proves  the  rule. 

And  thus  upon  examination  I  have  found  every  fact  which 
bears  upon  the  subject,  when  understood,  conspiring  to  prove  that 
there  is  a  period  of  increase  and  decrease  of  temperature,  and 
peculiarities  of  rain  fall  in  the  middle  and  northern  portions  of 
the  United  States,  dependent  upon  the  transit  of  the  atmospheric 
system  north  and  south,  caused  and  controlled  by  the  spots  upon 
the  sun  and  their  effect  in  diminishing  its  controlling  power. 

Our  examination  leads  to  the  further  inquiry,  whether  any 
other  forces  affect  the  volume  of  L-ade  with  which  this  coun- 
try is  supplied,  or  the  volume  of  moisture  which  they  bring  to  us, 
and  the  consequent  frequency  and  intensity  of  the  conditions  which 
make  our  weather. 

That  volcanic  action  affects  the  weather  locally,  is  generally 
believed.  On  this  subject  there  is  a  mass  of  evidence  for  which 
I  have  not  space.  Even  earthquakes,  at  a  distance  from  volca- 
noes, seem  to  exert  an  influence.  On  this  subject  Mr.  Hittell 
thus  speaks  in  the  "  Resources  of  California,"  page  44. 

'•  Earthquakes,  according  to  the  common  theory  of  Californians, 
are  electrical  in  their  origin,  or  closely  connected  with  electrical  in- 
fluences. Many  of  the  strongest  shocks  have  been  preceded  by 
a  condition  of  the  atmosphere  very  similar  to  that  which  precedes 
thunder-storms  in  other  lands.  When  the  weather  is  sultry  and 


222  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

oppressive  in  San  Francisco,  people  say,  "  Look  out  for  an  ea  th- 
quake  !  "  And  it  usually  comes — perhaps  so  faint  as  to  be  barely 
perceptible,  and  sometimes  not  until  several  hours  after  a  change 
in  the  weather." 

A  writer  in  the  London,  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  Phil.  Mag. 
for  December,  1853,  gives  a  collection  of  facts  bearing  upon  this 
subject,  which  I  copy.  He  collected  the  facts  as  a  basis  of  theory, 
but  I  introduce  them,  only  as  tending  to  show  that  volcanic  action 
may  have  an  influence  upon  the  weather,  and  as  confirmatory  of 
what  I  have  already  suggested,  that  the  cold  decade  from  1810  to 
1820  may  have  been  caused  in  part  by  the  extraordinary  volcanic 
activity  which  existed  during  the  early  part  of  the  decade  in  South 
America,  the  West  Indies,  and  this  country ;  but  we  cannot  trace 
that  influence,  for  we  have  no  records  of  temperature  or  of  rain- 
fall, except  at  a  very  few  points  upon  the  Atlantic  coast. 

There  has  been  occasional  volcanic  activity  since  then,  in  the 
West  Indies  and  in  South  America,  but  I  have  not  attempted  to 
trace  its  influence,  if  it  exerted  any,  upon  the  weather  of  this 
country.  I  have  not  had  time  or  strength  to  devote  to  it.  The 
subject  is  of  sufficient  interest,  and  I  commend  it  to  the  reader  as 
worthy  of  investigation.  And  to  aid  him,  I  insert  that  paper  of 
Mr.  Dobson.  His  cited  cases  may  all  have  been  coincidences, 
but  I  do  not  doubt  the  influence.  At  the  same  time  I  snould  look 
for  it  as  affecting  the  character  and  volume  of  the  trades  at  their 
place  of  origin,  rather  than  the  atmosphere  in  the  polar  zones 
directly.  But  if  it  affects  the  former,  it  must,  thereby,  indirectly, 
the  latter. 

The  following  is  the  substance  of  the  paper  of  Mr.  Dobson  : 

"  1st.  The  eruption  of  a  submarine  volcano  has  produced  water- 
spouts. 

"  During  these  bursts  the  most  vivid  flashes  of  lightning  con- 
tinually issued  from  the  densest  part  of  the  volcano,  and  the  vol- 
umes of  smoke  rolled  off  in  large  masses  of  fleecy  clouds,  grad- 
ually expanding  themselves  before  the  wind  in  a  direction  nearly 
horizontal,  and  drawing  up  a  quantity  of  water  spouts."  — (Cap- 
tain Tilland's  description  of  the  upheaval  of  Sabrina  Island  in 
June,  1811,  Phil.  Trans.) 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  223 

With  this  significant  fact  may  be  compared  the  following  anal- 
ogous ones. 

'•  In  the  Aleutian  Archipelago  a  new  island  was  formed  in  1795. 
It  was  first  observed  after  a  storm,  at  a  point  in  the  sea  from  which 
a  column  of  smoke  had  been  seen  to  rise." — (Lyell,  Principles 
of  Geology  ) 

"  Among  the  Aleutian  Islands  a  new  volcanic  island  appeared 
in  the  midst  of  a  storm,  attended  with  flames  and  smoke.  After 
the  sea  was  calm,  a  boat  was  sent  from  Unalaska  with  twenty 
Russian  hunters,  who  landed  on  this  island  on  June  1st,  1814." — 
(Journal  of  Science,  vol.  viL) 

"  On  July  24th,  1848,  a  submarine  eruption  broke  out  between 
the  mainland  of  Orkney  and  the  island  of  Strousa.  Amid  thun- 
der and  lightning,  a  very  dense  jet  black  cloud  was  seen  to  rise 
from  the  sea,  at  a  distance  of  five  or  six  miles,  which  traveled 
toward  the  northeast.  On  passing  over  Strousa,  the  wind  from  a 
slight  air  became  a  hurricane,  and  a  thick,  well-defined  belt  of 
large  hailstones  was  left  on  the  island.  The  barometer  fell  two 
inches." — (Transactions  Royal  Society,  Edinburg,  vol.  ix.) 

2d.  Hurricanes,  whirlwinds,  and  hailstones  accompany  the  par- 
oxysms of  volcanos. 

"  1730.  A  great  volcanic  eruption  at  Lancerote  Island,  and  a 
storm,  which  was  equally  new  and  terrifying  to  the  inhabitants, 
as  they  had  never  known  one  in  the  country  before." — (Lyell, 
Principles  of  Geology,  vol.  ii.) 

"  1754.  In  the  Philippine  Islands  a  terrible  volcanic  eruption 
destroyed  the  town  of  Taal  and  several  villages.  Darkness,  hur- 
ricanes, thunder,  lightning,  and  earthquakes,  alternated  in  fright- 
ful succession  " — (Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal.) 

"In  180>,  1811,  1813,  and  1830,  during  eruptions  of  Etna, 
caravans  in  the  deserts  of  Africa  perished  by  violent  whirlwinds. 
In  1807,  while  Vesuvius  was  in  eruption,  a  whirlwind  destroyed 
a  caravan." — (Rev.  W.  B  Clarke  in  Tasw.  Journal.) 

"  1815,  Java.  A  tremendous  eruption  of  Tombow  Mountain. 
Between  nine  and  ten  P.M.,  ashes  began  to  fall,  and  soon  after  a 


221  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

violent  whirlwind  took  up  into  the  air  the  largest  trees,  men, 
horses,  cattle,  etc." — (Raffle's  History  of  Java.) 

"1817,  Dec.  Vesuvius  in  eruption.  In  the  evening  a  hail  storm, 
accompanied  with  red  sand." — (Journal  of  Science,  vol.  v.) 

"  1820,  Banda.  A  frightful  volcanic  eruption,  and  in  the  even- 
ing an  earthquake  and  a  violent  hurricane." — (Annales  de 
Chimic.) 

"  1822,  Oct.  Eruption  of  Vesuvius.  Toward  its  close  the  vol- 
canic thunder-storm  produced  an  exceedingly  violent  and  abun- 
dant fall  of  rain." — (Humboldt,  Aspects  of  Nature.) 

"1843,  Jan.  Etna  in  eruption.  Violent  hurricanes  at  Genoa, 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  in  Great  Britain. 

w  1843,  Feb.  Destructive  earthquake  in  the  West  Indies,  a 
volcanic  eruption  at  Guadaloupe,  followed  by  hurricanes  in  the 
Atlantic." 

"  1846,  June  26.  Volcano  of  White  Island,  New  Zealand,  in 
eruption.  Heavy  squalls  of  wind  and  hail ;  it  blew  as  hard  as 
in  a  typhoon." — (Commodore  Hayes,  II.  N.,  in  Naut.Mag.,  1847.) 

"  1847,  March  20.  Volcanic  eruption  and  earthquake  in  Java  ; 
and  on  the  21st  of  March,  and-  3d  of  April,  violent  hurricanes." 
— (Java  Courant) 

"1851,  Aug.  5.  A  frightful  eruption  of  the  long  dormant  vol- 
cano of  the  Pelee  Mountain,  Martinique.  Aug.  17.  Hurricane 
at  St.  Thomas,  etc. ;  earthquake  at  Jamaica,  etc. 

"  1852,  April  14.  Earthquake  at  Hawaii,  and  on  the  15th  a 
great  volcanic  eruption.  On  the  1 8th  a  gale  of  unusual  violence 
lasted  thirty-six  hours,  and  did  great  damage." — (The  Polynesian, 
April  22,  1852.) 

3d.  In  volcanic  regions,  earthquakes  and  hurricanes  often  occur 
almost  simultaneously,  but  in  no  certain  order,  and  without  any 
volcanic  eruption  being  observed. 

In  1712,  1722,  1815,  and  1^51,  earthquakes  and  hurricanes 
occurred  together  at  Jamaica;  in  1762  at  Carthagena;  in  17#0 
at  Barbadoes  ;  in  1811  at  Charleston;  in  1847  at  Tobago;  in 
1837  and  1848  at  Antigua ;  in  18 19,  an  awful  storm  at  Montreal, 
rain  of  a  dark  inky  color,  and  a  slight  earthquake.  People  con- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  225 

jf3etured  that  a  volcano  had  broken  out.  In  1766  the  great  Mar- 
tinique hurricane,  a  waterspout  burst  on  Mount  Pelee  and  over- 
whelmed the  place.  Same  night  an  earthquake. 

1843,  Oct.  30.  Manilla. — Twenty- four  hours'  rain  and  two  heavy 
earthquakes.  10  P.M.,  a  severe  hurricane. 

"  1852,  Sept.  16.  Manilla. — An  earthquake  destroyed  a  great 
part  of  the  city ;  many  vessels  wrecked  by  a  great  hurricane  in 
the  adjacent  seas,  between  the  18th  and  26th  of  September." — 
(Singapore  Times.) 

"1737,  Oct.  Calcutta. — Furious  hurricane  and  violent  earth- 
quake ;  300,000  lives  lost." 

"1816,  May  26.  Bombay. — Hurricane  and  earthquakes;  2,000 
lives  lost."— (Madras  Lit.  Tran.,  1837.) 

"  1800,  Ongole,  India,  and  in  1815,  at  Ceylon,  a  hurricane  and 
earthquake  shocks." — (Piddington.) 

"  1848.  Cyprus. — An  earthquake  and  a  frightful  hurricane." — 
(Hecker.) 

"  1819,  Bagdad. — An  earthquake  and  a  storm — an  event  quite 
unprecedented. 

"1820,  Dec.  Zante. — Great  earthquake  and  hurricane,  with 
manifestations  of  a  submarine  eruption." — (Edinburgh  Phil. 
Journal.) 

"  1831,  Dec.  Navigator' slslands. — Hurricane  and  earthquakes." 
(Williams'  Missionary  Enterprise.) 

"  1848,  Oct.,  Nov.  New  Zealand. — Succession  of  earthquake 
shocks,  and  several  tempests. 

"  1836,  Oct.  At  Valparaiso,  a  destructive  tempest  and  severe 
earthquakes." — (Nautical  Magazine,  1848.) 

When  an  earthquake  of  excessive  intensity  occurs,  as  at  Lisbon, 
in  1755,  the  volcanic  craters,  which  act  as  the  safety-valves  of 
the  regions  in  which  they  are  placed,  are  supposed  to  be  sealed 
up ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  and  highly-suggestive  fact,  that  no 
hurricane  follows  such  an  earthquake.  The  number  of  instances 
of  the  concurrence  of  ordinary  earthquakes  and  hurricanes  might 
easily  be  increased,  but  the  preceding  suffice  to  show  the  gener- 
ality of  their  coincidence,  both  as  to  time  and  place. 
11 


226  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

4th.  The  breaking  of  water-spouts  on  mountains  sometimes  ac- 
companies hurricanes. 

In  1766,  during  the  great  Martinique  hurricane,  before  cited. 

"  1826,  Nov.  At  Teneriffe,  enormous  and  most  destructive 
water-spouts  fell  on  the  culminating  tops  of  the  mountains,  and  a 
furious  cyclone  raged  around  the  island.  The  same  occurred  in 
1812  and  in  1837." — (Espy  and  Grey's  Western  Australia.) 

"  1829,  Moray. — Floods  and  earthquakes,  preceded  by  water- 
spouts and  a  tremendous  storm." — (Sir  T.  D.  Lander.) 

"  1826,  June.  Hurricanes,  accompanied  by  water-spouts  and 
fall  of  avalanches,  in  the  White  Mountains." — (Silliman's  Amer- 
ican Journal,  vol.  xv.) 

5th.     The  fall  of  an  avalanche  sometimes  produces  a  hurricane. 

"1819,  Dec.  A  part  (860,000,000  cubic  feet)  of  the  glacier 
fell  from  the  Weisshorn  (9,000  feet.)  At  the  instant,  when  the 
snow  and  ice  struck  the  inferior  mass  of  the  glacier,  the  pastor  of 
the  village  of  Randa,  the  sacristan,  and  some  other  persons,  ob- 
served a  light.  A  frightful  hurricane  immediately  succeeded." — 
(Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  1820.) 

6th.  Water-spouts  occur  frequently  near  active  volcanoes. 

This  is  well  known  with  regard  to  the  West  Indies  and  the 
Mediterranean.  The  following  notices  refer  to  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago and  the  Sandwich  Islands  : 

"  Water-spouts  are  often  seen  in  the  seas  and  straits  adjacent 
to  Singapore.  In  Oct.  1841,  I  saw  six  in  action,  attached  to  one 
cloud.  In  August,  1838,  one  passed  over  the  harbor  and  town 
of  Singapore,  dismasting  one  ship,  sinking  another,  and  carrying 
off  the  corner  of  the  roof  of  a  house,  in  its  passage  landward." — 
(Journal  of  Indian  Archipelago. ) 

"  1809.  An  immense  water-spout  broke  over  the  harbor  of  Hon- 
olulu. A  few  years  before,  one  broke  on  the  north  side  of  the 
island  (Oahu,)  washed  away  a  number  of  houses,  and  drowned 
several  inhabitants." — (Jarves'  History  of  Sandwich  Islands.) 

7th.  Cyclones  begin  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  active 
volcanoes. 

The  Mauritius  cyclones  begin   near  Java ;  the  West  Indian^ 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  227 

near  the  volcanic  series  of  the  Caribbean  Islands ;  those  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  near  the  volcanic  islands,  on  its  eastern  shores ; 
the  typhoons  of  the  China  Sea,  near  the  Philippine  Islands,  etc. 

8th.  Within  the  tropics,  cyclones  move  toward  the  west ;  and, 
in  middle  latitudes,  cyclones  and  water-spouts  move  toward  the 
N.E.,  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  toward  the  S.E.  in  the 
southern  hemisphere."  Such  are  the  views  of  Mr.  Dobson. 

Popular  opinion  has  ever  attributed  to  the  moon  a  controlling 
effect  upon  the  changes  of  the  weather.  If  it  be  dry,  a  storm  is 
expected  when  the  moon  changes  ;  or  if  it  be  wet,  dry  weather. 
Such  popular  opinions  are  usually  entitled  to  respect,  and  founded 
in  truth.  But  every  attempt  to  verify  this  opinion,  by  careful 
observation  and  registration,  has  failed.  Weather-tables  and 
lunar  phases,  compared  for  nearly  one  hundred  years,  show  four 
hundred  and  ninety-one  new  or  full  moons  attended  by  a  change  of 
the  weather,  and  five  hundred  and  nine  without.  The  celebrated 
Olbers,  after  fifty  years  of  careful  observation  and  comparison,  de- 
cided against  it.  So  did  the  more  celebrated  Arago,  at  a  more 
recent  date — summing  up  the  result  of  his  observations  by  say- 
ing— "  Whatever  the  progress  of  the  sciences,  never  will  obser- 
vers who  are  trustworthy  and  careful  of  their  reputation,  venture 
to  forete1!  the  state  of  the  weather."  Still,  the  moon  may  influence 
the  weather,  though  she  may  not  effect  changes  at  her  syzygies  or 
quadratures,  and  this  subject  should  not  be  too  summarily  dismissed. 
That  the  moon  can  not  effect  changes  at  the  periods  named  seems 
philosophically  obvious.  She  changes,  for  the  whole  earth,  within 
the  period  of  twenty-four  hours  ;  yet,  how  varied  the  state  of  things 
on  different  portions  of  its  surface.  The  equatorial  belts  of  trades, 
and  drouth,  and  rains,  cover  from  fifty  to  sixty  degrees  of  its  sur- 
face, and  know  nothing  of  lunar  disturbance.  The  extra-tropical 
belt  of  rains  and  variable  weather  moves  up  in  its  season,  uncover- 
ing 10°,  or  more,  of  latitude,  and  admitting  the  trades  and  a  six 
months'  drouth  over  it,  as  in  California,  regardless  of  the  moon.  Un- 
der the  zone  of  extra-tropical  rains,  even  upon  the  eastern  part  of 
the  continent  of  North  America,  "dry  spells"  and  "wet  spells"  exist 
side  by  side  ;  the  focus  of  precipitation  is  now  in  one  parallel,  and 


223  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

now  in  another — storms  exist  here  and  fair  weather  there,  on  the 
same  continent  at  the  same  time ;  and  as  the  moon's  rays  in  her 
northing  pass  round  the  northern  hemisphere  during  the  twen- 
ty-four hours,  they,  doubtless,  pass  from  twenty  to  thirty  or  more 
storms,  of  all  characters  and  intensities,  moving  in  opposition  to 
her  orbit — and  as  many  larger  intervening  areas  of  fair  weather, 
not  one  of  which  are  indebted  to  her  for  their  existence,  or  "take 
thought  of  her  coming." 

The  storm,  which  originates  in  the  tropics,  pursues  its  curving 
way  now  N.W.,  then  N.E.,  to  the  arctic  circle,  over  gulf,  and 
continent,  and  ocean,  occupying  one-third  the  time  of  a  lunation, 
and  two  changes  or  more,  in  i:s  progress,  without  any  perceptible 
or  conceivable  influence  from  her.  Yet  every  inhabitant  of 
mother-earth,  influenced  by  coincidences  remembered  and  uninflu- 
enced by  exceptions  forgotten,  looks  up  within  his  limited  horizon, 
and  devoutly  expects  from  the  agency  of  some  phase  of  the  moon, 
a  change  for  the  special  benefit  of  his  dot  upon  the  earth's  surface. 
Upon  how  many  of  these  countless  dots  is  the  moon  at  a  particu- 
lar phase,  or  relative  distance  from  the  sun,  to  change  fair  weather 
to  foul,  or  foul  to  fair  ?  Upon  none.  The  storms  keep  on  their 
way ; — the  wet  spells,  and  the  dry  spells,  the  cold  and  the  hot 
spells  alternate  in  their  time,  and  though  the  moon  turns  toward 
them  in  passing,  her  dark  face,  her  half  face,  or  her  full  orb  (the 
gifts  of  the  sun,  which  confer  no  powerj  they  do  not  heed  her. 
They  are  originated,  and  are  continued,  by  a  more  potent  agent. 
They  are  the  work  of  an  atmospheric  mechanism,  as  ceaseless  in  its 
operation  as  time,  as  regular  as  the  seasons,  as  extensive  as  the  globe. 

Indeed,  it  seems  as  if  it  was  expressly  designed  by  the  Creator 
that  the  moon  should  not  interfere  materially  with  this  atmos- 
pheric machinery.  She  is  the  nearest  orb  ,  her  influence  would 
be  controlling  and  continuous ;  would  follow  her  monthly  path 
from  south  to  north,  and  with  changes  too  violent,  and  intervals 
too  long;  and  would  interfere  with  the  regular  fundamental  ope- 
ration in  the  trade  wind  region,  where  she  is  ve.  tical.  Aside 
from  the  attraction  of  gravitation,  therefore,  she  seems  to  have 
been  so  created  as  to  be  incapable  of  exerting  any  influence.  She 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  229 

is  without  an  atmosphere  ;  the  rays  which  she  reflects  are  polar- 
ized, and  without  chemical  or  magnetic  power  ;  and,  if  it  be  true 
that  Melloni  has  recently  detected  heat  in  them,  by  the  use  of  a 
lens  three  feet  in  diameter,  which  could  not  previously  be  effected, 
its  quantity  is  exceedingly  small,  and  incapable  of  influence. 
Doubtless,  the  attraction  of  her  mass  is  felt  upon  the  earth,  as  the 
tides  attest ;  and  upon  the  atmosphere  as  well  as  the  ocean.  But 
the  atmosphere  is  comparatively  attenuated,  and  exceedingly  so 
at  its  upper  surface.  Her  attraction,  therefore,  although  felt,  is 
not  influential.  She  seemed,  to  Dr.  Howard,  to  produce  in  her 
northing  and  southing,  a  lateral  tide  which  the  barometer  disclosed, 
but  owing  to  the  attenuated  character  of  the  atmosphere,  neither 
the  sun  nor  moon  create  an  easterly  and  westerly  tide,  that  is 
observable,  except  with  the  most  delicate  instruments.  Sabine  is 
believed  to  have  detected  such  a  tide  by  the  barometer,  at  St. 
Helena,  of  one  four-thousandth  of  an  inch.  But  even  this  in" 
finitesimal  influence  may  prove  an  error  upon  further  investiga- 
tion. There  is  a  diurnal  variation  of  the  barometer,  but  it  is  not 
the  result  of  her  attraction,  for  it  is  not  later  each  day  as  are  the 
tides,  exists  in  the  deepest  mines  as  well  as  upon  the  surface,  and 
is  demonstrably  connected  with  the  group  of  diurnal  changes  pro- 
duced by  other  causes. 

Can  the  lateral  tide,  if  there  be  one,  affect  the  weather  ?  for  in 
the  present  state  of  science  it  seems  entirely  certain  that  the  moon 
can  exert  an  influence  in  no  other  way. 

If  the  received  idea  of  many,  perhaps  most  meteorologists,  on 
which  all  wheel  barometers  are  constructed,  that  a  high  barometer 
necessarily  produces  fair  weather,  and  a  low  one  foul,  were  true, 
she  certainly  might  do  so.  But  that  idea  cannot  be  sustained,  and 
there  is  no  known  certain  influence  exerted  by  the  moon  upon  the 
weather,  in  relation  to  which  we  have  any  reliable  practical  data. 

Humboldt  appears  to  have  adopted  the  impression  of  Sir  W. 
Hcrschel,  that  the  moon  aids  in  the  dispersion  of  the  clouds. 
(Cosmos,  vol.  iv,  p.  502.)  But  the  tendency  to  such  dispersion 
is  always  rapid  during  the  latter  part  of  the  day  and  evening, 
when  there  is  no  storm  approaching,  and  the  full  moon  renders 


230  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTKM. 

their  dissolution  visible,  and  attracts  attention  to  them.  The 
Greenwich  observations,  also,  carefully  examined  by  Professor 
Loomis,  fail  to  confirm  the  impression  of  Herschel  and  Hum- 
boldt,  and  those  eminent  philosophers  are  doubtless,  in  this,  mis- 
taken. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  in  relation  to  the  influence  of  the 
moon,  were  written  for  the  '-  Philosophy  of  the  Weather,"  pub- 
lished in  1856.  Since  that,  I  have  continued  the  investigation, 
but  with  no  change  of  result.  Dr.  Lynes,  in  his  diary  of  a 
voyage  round  Cape  Horn,  which  I  have  copied,  remarks  that  the 
trades  seemed  to  freshen  after  the  moon  rose,  but  there  is  no  con- 
ceivable way  in  which  the  moon  could  increase  the  trades,  except 
by  aiding  the  motive  force  of  the  sun  which  causes  them,  nor  any 
known  way  in  which  she  could  do  that,  unless  by  the  influence  of 
her  light,  and  such  an  influence  cannot  be  conceived.  Howard 
thought  he  could  trace  an  increase  in  the  frequency  and  volume 
of  rain,  after  the  moon  had  reached  her  southing,  and  was  com- 
ing north.  If  we  could  conceive  of  any  method  by  which  the 
moon  could  increase  the  southeast  trades,  when  vertical  to  them, 
or  the  quantity  of  moisture  contained  in  them,  we  could  easily  see 
that  the  supposition  of  Howard  might  be  true,  for  the  increased 
volume  of  trade  would  arrive  at  the  latitude  of  England,  before 
the  moon  crossed  the  equator ;  and  an  increased  volume  of  trade 
would  be  likely  to  increase  the  frequency  and  constancy  of  rains 
in  that  climate.  But  I  am  unable  to  see  how  it  is  possible  for  the 
moon  to  exert  any  influence  upon  the  volume  of  the  trades,  or 
their  evaporating  power,  and  am  alike  unable  to  trace  any  influ- 
ence upon  the  weather  in  this  country.  To  the  tables  of  Herschel 
and  Adam  Clark,  I  shall  refer  particularly  hereafter. 

There  is  one  other  thing  which  probably  affects  the  volume  of 
counter  or  upper  trade,  which  comes  to  this  country,  and  thereby 
the  amount  and  regularity  of  its  rain-fall,  which  I  have  not  at- 
tempted to  investigate.  I  allude  to  the  deflection  of  the  S.E 
trades  of  the  Atlantic  in  upon  Senegambia,  under  and  below  the 
central  belt  of  rains,  constituting  the  monsoon  represented  upon  the 
diagram,  page  119.  Lieut.  Maury  has  said  that  the  influence  which 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  231 

deflects  the  S.E.  trades  upon  that  part  of  the  ocean,  is  sometimes 
felt  nearly  across  to  the  continent  of  South  America.  If  that  is 
true,  it  is  obvious  that  a  portion  of  the  S.E.  trades,  which,  if  undi- 
verted, would  pass  over  this  country  as  an  upper  trade,  is  deflect- 
ed away  from  us,  and  must  have  an  important  influence  upon  the 
amount  of  our  rain-fall.  The  subject  is  capable  of  elucidation  by 
an  examination  of  the  logs  of  vessels  which  have  passed  that  part 
of  the  ocean,  which  are  collected  at  the  National  Observatory, 
and  I  hope  it  will  be  investigated. 

While  this  chapter  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  printer,  ac- 
counts have  been  published  of  a  summer  drouth  which  has  pre- 
vailed in  the  southeastern  states,  of  the  second  class  described, 
and  of  like  character  with  that  of  18)4,  but  of  less  extent.  To 
illustrate  its  character,  and  the  fact  that  like  all  of  its  class  it  has 
been  produced  by  an  unusual  concentration  of  the  conditions  on 
the  focal  path  to  the  west  and  northwest,  I  copy  a  letter  from 
the  New  York  Observer,  descriptive  of  the  drouth  at  its  central 
point  in  Tennessee. 

''DROUTH    IN    EAST    TENNESSEE. 

"KNOXVILLE,  TENN.,  Aug.  30,  1869. 

"Messrs.  Editors :  On  arriving  at  this  point,  and  resting  for  a 
day  or  two,  I  have  had  opportunity  for  gaining  additional^a7form- 
ation  as  to  the  condition  of  this  section  and  the  country  South 
and  We.-t ;  and  I  am  now  to  write  of  a  distressing  state  of  things, 
resulting  from  an  almost  unparalleled  drouth.  For  nearly  three 
months  there  has  been  no  rain  of  any  consequence  in  East  Ten- 
nessee. The  rivers  and  smaller  streams  are  very  low.  The  Hol- 
ston  at  this  place  presents  quite  a  singular  appearance,  the  volume 
of  water  being  so  small  that  ferry-boats  can  scarcely  cross,  while 
steam-boats  are  all  aground,  and  for  the  present,  entirely  useless. 
The  thermometer  has,  during  this  season,  ranged  from  90°  to 
104°.  Persons  have  been  and  are  still  complaining  of  the  severe 
oppressiveness  of  the  heat,  and,  thinly  clad,  many,  with  umbrellas 
while  out  of  the  shade,  barely  manage  to  get  about.  The  farm- 
ers, many  of  them,  have  become  so  discouraged  that  they  have 


232  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

turned  their  stock  in  upon  their  cornfields,  because  they  felt  that 
it  was  impossible  to  receive  as  much  benefit  from  them  in  any 
other  way.  In  some  portions  of  the  state  large  fields  of  corn 
which  would  have  yielded  from  thirty  to  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre, 
cannot  possibly  yield  now  exceeding  from  three  to  five." 

And  now  I  copy  from  the  St.  Paul  (Minnesota,)  Daily  Press, 
the  following  notes  of  the  rain-fall  for  the  month  of  August  at 
that  place,  descriptive  of  tie  drench  : 

"  The  month  commenced  with  a  very  heavy  fall  of  rain,  nearly 
two  inches  and  a  half  of  water  being  deposited  on  the  first  day. 
Other  rains  followed  at  pretty  regular  intervals,  and  in  copious 
showers,  so  that  the  amount  of  rain  for  the  month  reached  the 
unusual  quantity  of  seven  and  two -thirds  inches.  This  monthly 
fall  has  been  exceeded  three  times  only  in  eleven  years — in  July, 
1862,  in  August,  1865,  and  in  June,  1867.  Looking  at  it  in  an- 
ticipation, it  would  have  seemed  that  so  numerous  and  abundant 
rains  must  produce  a  disastrous  effect  upon  the  harvest,  coming  as 
they  did  at  almost  every  stage  of  its  gathering.  And  yet,  with 
occasional  exceptions,  no  serious  injury  appears  to  have  resulted, 
and  the  wheat  crop,  now  almost  full  secured,  is  represented  to  be 
both  very  large  and  of  good  quality. 

Rain  fell  on  twelve  days,  to  the  amount  of  seven  inches  and 
sixty-two  hundredths  of  an  inch  of  water.  The  fair  days  were 
equal  to  sixteen.  The  winds  came  principally  from  E.  and  S.E." 

Here  is  evidence  of  a  parching  and  destructive  drouth  over  a 
large  area  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  dangerous  drench  under  the  focal  path  over  the  Western 
and  Northwestern  states,  conforming  precisely  in  character  to  the 
summer  drouths,  produced  by  the  transit  and  concentration  of  the 
conditions,  as  fully  developed  and  explained  in  the  Philosophy  of 
the  Weather,  and  this  work.  It  is  a  great  public  misfortune  that 
the  practical  mind  of  the  country  should  be  kept  in  ignorance  of 
those  transits  and  concentrations,  and  their  important  climatolo- 
gical  results  and  consequences,  by  men  claiming  to  be  meteorolo- 
gists, and  occupying  prominent  and  controlling  public  and  educa- 
tional positions. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PROGNOSTICATION. 

Consideration  of  the  question  how  far  and  by  what  means,  a  local,  isolated 
observer  can  prognosticate  or  forecast  the  weather — assuming  the  two  first 
fundamental  propositions  to  be  proved,  the  logical  inquiry  will  be,  when 
will  the  normal  state  be  disturbed  by  a  condition  and  its  changes,  and  what 
its  character  and  intensity — Certainty  or  regularity  of  interval,  not  to  be 
expected,  although  conditions  of  more  or  less  intensity  pass  frequently — 
They  sometimes  pass  on  a  given  day  of  the  week  for  several  weeks,  with 
or  without  an  intervening  condition — No  certainty  as  to  the  character  and 
intensity  of  the  next  condition — nor  any  reliance  on  planetary  influence — 
only  reliance  is  upon  changes  of  state  produced  by  passing  conditions — 
Signs,  proverbs,  and  maxims  not  founded  on  or  connected  with  those 
changes  of  state,  empirical  and  worthless — The  inquiry  then  is  for  prog- 
nostic inferences,  derivable  from  changes  of  state — Certain  other  elements 
and  contingencies  to  be  considered,  viz :  location  of  observer,  season  of 
the  year,  and  the  situation  of  the  year  in  the  decade — Recapitulation  of  the 
changes  of  state,  induced  by  the  conditions  from  which  prognostic  infer- 
ences are  to  be  drawn —  Weight  of  the  atmosphere,  how  measured — various 
instruments  examined — Barometer  the  principal  one  to  be  relied  on — Its 
indications — its  mean  elevation  generally  upon  the  earth — difference  of 
elevation  in  different  localities — mean  elevation  least  where  conditions  are 
most  frequent  and  intense — examination  of  the  fact  in  relation  to  this 
country — Places  and  circumstances  under  which  it  ranges  highest  and 
lowest — Allowance  to  be  made  for  elevations  above  the  level  of  the  sea — 
Rules  for  determining  that  allowance — No  fair  weather  standard  for  the  bar- 
ometer— each  observer  must  fix  one  for  himself — Standard  must  vary  with 
the  transits  of  the  focal  path  and  deduction  must  be  made  for  altitude — 
Rules  for  fixing  such  standard — collection  of  rules  used  in  England,  for 
forecasting  weather  by  barometer — critical  examination  of  these  rules — 
Prognostic  influences  to  be  drawn  from  temperature — before  northeasters — 
before  belts  of  showers — in  relation  to  the  probability  of  snow  or  rain — 
exceptional  warm  periods  in  winter  without  passing  conditions — how 
produced — thermometer  to  be  consulted  in  reference  to  the  continuance  of 
storms — sudden  changes  of  our  climate — their  magnitude  and  how  pro- 
duced— importance  of  forecasting  and  regarding  them — Prognostic  infer- 
ences to  be  drawn  from  the  winds  and  their  changes — winds  not  felt  at  the 


234  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

surface  discoverable  by  sounds  and  scud — all  fresh,  earnest  winds  created 
by  conditions — importance  of  this  class  of  prognostic  inferences — Prognos- 
tic inferences  drawn  from  clearness  or  cloudiness — their  character  and  im- 
portance— examination  of  the  maxims  founded  on  them — Resume  of  the 
appearances  of  the  sky  from  which  prognostic  inferences  may  be  drawn — 
Prognostic  inferences  from  the  existence  of  humidity — Evaporation  and 
hygrometry — devices  by  which  humidity  is  measured — contrast  between 
the  English  climate  and  ours,  in  relation  to  humidity — examination  of 
weather  signs  founded  on  humidity — Prognostic  inferences  from.ram,  hail 
and  snow — examination  of  weather  proverbs  in  relation  to  them — Rules  for 
determining  whether  a  storm  will  precipitate  snow  or  rain — Prognostic  in- 
ferences from  the  seventh  element  or  electric  state  of  the  atmosphere — Dr. 
Jenner's  signs  of  rain — examination  of  those  signs  as  founded  upon  the 
electrical  influence  of  an  approaching  condition,  on  men,  animals,  and 
plants — Examination  of  signs  and  proverbs  not  founded  on  any  of  the  fore- 
going seven  states — all  fallacies — Review  of  some  of  the  principal  points 
— importance  and  probability  of  the  use  of  the  telegraph  in  prognostica- 
tion— other  material  points  reviewed — Examination  of  the  question  what 
will  be  the  character  of  the  next  condition,  and  how  to  forecast  that  char- 
acter— also  the  question  what  will  be  its  intensity,  and  how  that  question 
can  be  answered — prognostic  inferences  in  relation  to  the  continuance  of  the 
conditions  and  how  they  "  clear  off." 

If  the  reader  has  carefully  followed  me  in  the  foregoing  devel- 
opments, and  fully  comprehended  and  appreciated  them,  he  is  pre- 
pared to  enter  with  me  upon  the  further  and  important  inquiry : 
"  how  far  and  by  what  means  can  a  local,  isolated  observer  prog- 
nosticate or  forecast  the  weather  T'  And  here  again  we  shall  find 
the  subject  capable  of  intelligent,  logical  analysis,  and  practical 
result. 

In  the  outset  of  this  inquiry,  I  assume,  as  I  think  I  may  well 
assume — that  the  facts  I  have  developed  and  arranged,  have  sat- 
isfied you  of  the  truth  of  my  two  first  fundamental  propositions, 
viz :  1st,  that  the  normal  state  of  the  polar  zones  is  still,  fair 
weather,  and  2d,  that  the  changes  from  that  state,  result  from  the 
influence  of  forming,  approaching  or  passing  conditions.  It  fol- 
lows philosophically  and  logically,  that  in  respect  to  prognostica- 
tion, the  inquiry  is  and  must  be,  how  long  will  that  normal  state 
continue  undisturbed  by  a  passing  condition,  or  in  other  words, 
when  will  the  next  condition  approach  and  disturb  that  state  by 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  235 

its  changes  ?  What  will  be  the  character  and  intensity  of  that 
condition  and  its  incident  changes  ?  and  how  long  will  it  be  in 
passing  away  and  permitting  the  normal  state  to  return  ? 

Certainty  or  regularity  in  relation  to  the  intervals  between  the 
occurrence  of  the  conditions  is  not  ordinarily  to  be  expected. 
The  Californian  knows  indeed  when  the  focal  path  of  the  condi- 
tions has  moved  to  the  north  in  summer,  that  it  will  not  descend 
until  fall,  and  that  a  long  period  of  drouth  and  fair  weather  is  be- 
fore him.  He  sees  the  thin  and  feeble  southern  edge  of  the  con- 
ditions occasionally  pass  over  him,  while  their  intense  and  precip- 
itating bodies  are  far  to  the  north,  carried  by  a  law  as  unchange- 
able as  the  transits  of  the  sun.  Dr.  Gibbon,  in  the  Smithsonian 
Report  for  1854,  thus  speaks  of  these  lateral,  outlying,  feeble, 
southern  extensions  of  the  conditions,  though  without  understand- 
ing them :  "  In  almost  every  month  of  the  year  during  the  dry 
season,  the  clouds  put  on  the  appearance  of  rain,  and  then  vanish. 
It  is  evident  that  the  phenomena  which  produce  rain  in  other 
climates,  are  present  in  this,  but  not  quite  in  sufficient  degree  to 
accomplish  the  result,  except  during  the  rainy  season,  and  then 
only  by  paroxysms,  with  intervening  periods  of  drouth."  And 
here,  during  a  class  of  drouths  like  that  of  1854,  occasioned  by  a 
peculiar  concentration  and  extension  of  the  focal  path  to  the  west 
and  north,  we  have  similar  appearances,  and  say,  "  all  signs  fail 
in  a  dry  time,"  and  are  reasonably  certain  that  our  needed  rains 
will  not  return  until  the  conditions  become  more  focal  over  us 
again,  late  in  August  or  early  in  September.  But  with  respect 
to  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent,  that  class  of  drouths  are  ex- 
ceptional. So  too,  in  the  rainy  season  of  spring  and  early 
summer,  when  the  conditions  are  focal  over  us,  and  both  frequent 
and  intense,  and  we  say,  "  it  rains  very  easy  now,"  and  it  does 
so  almost  every  day,  and  the  intervals  are  short,  we  can  calculate 
with  reasonable  certainty  on  the  recurrence  of  rain.  But  this 
also  is  confined  to  a  season  of  a  few  weeks,  and  is  exceptional. 
And  it  is  true,  as  we  have  stated,  that  certainty  and  regularity  of 
interval  between  the  conditions,  is  not,  as  a  rule,  for  the  year, 
to  be  expected. 


'236  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  sometimes  true,  not  merely  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son of  spring  and  fall,  but  at  other  times,  that  the  intervals  are, 
in  fact,  regular  for  several  weeks  in  succession.  It  is  doubtless 
within  the  recollection  and  experience  of  every  one  who  has  lived 
long,  that  at  a  remembered  period,  some  particular  day  in  the 
week,  for  several  successive  weeks,  was  stormy  ;  sometimes  with, 
and  at  others  without,  an  intervening  storm  or  showery  condition 
on  some  other  day  in  the  week.  Those  cases  too  are  exceptional, 
and  do  not  affect  the  proposition  as  a  general  one. 

Nor  is  there  any  absolute  certainty  in  respect  to  the  character 
or  intensity  of  the  next  condition,  on  which  a  local  observer  can 
rely.  There  is  probability,  dependent  upon  the  season  of  the  year, 
and  the  location  of  the  year  in  the  decade,  as  we  shall  see,  but  it 
is  probability  merely. 

Nor,  in  respect  to  either,  is  there  any  reliance  on  any  planetary 
influence. 

Inasmuch  then  as  there  is  no  certainty,  or  regularity  of  inter- 
val between  the  conditions,  or  in  respect  to  the  character  or  inten- 
sity of  the  one  which  will  next  pass  over  the  observer,  it  is  phil- 
osophically and  logically  obvious  that  his  only  reliance  is,  and  must 
be,  upon  the  observable  changes  of  state  which  the  forming,  ap- 
proaching or  passing  conditions  induce  ;  and  as  matter  of  fact  it 
will  be  found  on  careful  examination  that  all  the  most  important 
proverbs  and  signs  which  men  have  observed  or  adopted,  and  tra- 
dition has  preserved,  are  founded  on  those  changes  of  state ;  and 
that  all  which  are  not  directly  connected  with,  or  indicative  of, 
some  one  of  those  states,  are  empirical  and  worthless.  We  must 
recur  then  to  those  states  and  changes,  to  trace  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  initiated,  and  the  prognostic  influences  to  be  de- 
rived from  them. 

Before  we  do  this,  however,  it  is  essential  that  we  should  al- 
lude to  some  circumstances  which  must  enter  as  elements  into  the 
consideration  of  the  subject  at  all  times,  and  in  all  places,  in  order 
to  a  correct  and  clear  prognostication. 

I.  The  first  element  to  be  considered  is  the  location  of  the 
observer.  Of  the  importance  of  this  element,  the  reader  is  doubt- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  237 

less  satisfied,  if  he  has  comprehended  the  developments  made ; 
but  it  is  fundamentally  important,  and  an  additional  illustration  or 
two  may  not  be  amiss. 

If  in  February  the  observer  is  in  Alabama,  Eastern  Arkansas, 
Southern  Tennessee,  Southern  Virginia,  or  North  Carolina,  he  is 
in  the  centre  of  the  winter  focal  path  of  the  Atlantic  conditions, 
subject  to  the  winter  rainy  season,  even  when  most  concentrated, 
and  the  conditions  will  be  frequent  and  intense.  If  in  the  same 
month  he  is  in  Western  Texas,  Western  Arkansas,  Western  Mis- 
souri, Northern  Illinois,  or  Indiana,  he  is  west  or  north  of  that 
focal  path,  and  will  have  a  comparatively  dry  season.  The  con- 
ditions will  occasionally  widen  or  spread  out  far  enough  to  the 
west  and  north,  to  cover  his  place  of  observation,  but  occasionally 
only,  and  be  of  weak  intensity. 

If  again  his  place  of  observation  is  in  New  Mexico,  Western 
Kansas,  or  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  or  Upper  Canada, 
the  northern  edge  of  the  conditrons  will  reach  him  still  less  fre- 
quently, and  the  weather  will  be  comparatively  still,  cold  and 
clear,  with  great  uniformity. 

If  again  his  place  of  observation  be  Fort  Yuma,  in  Southern 
California,  or  at  the  extreme  northwestern  point  of  New  Mexico, 
or  at  the  extreme  northwestern  point  of  Nebraska  or  Minnesota, 
he  may  be  reached  by  the  southern  edge  of  the  Pacific  conditions, 
or  their  influence,  during  certain  years  in  the  early  part  of  the 
decade  ;  but  in  the  latter  years  of  the  decade  it  will  be  otherwise, 
and  no  conditions  will  reach  him  from  either  system  ;  and  the 
weather  will  generally  be  clear  and  unaffected  by  anything  but 
latitude  and  altitude. 

If  his  place  of  observation  is  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  any  considerable  distance  north  of  the  line  drawn  through 
Forts  Yuma  and  Laramie  to  northwestern  Minnesota,  he  will  be 
covered  by  the  Pacific  system  of  conditions,  which  increase  in 
intensity  arid  frequency  from  San  Diego  to  Astoria,  and  northeast- 
ward of  them,  and  are  comparatively  regular  in  their  frequency 
and  intensity  according  to  the  latitude.  This,  I  think  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  satisfy  the  reader  of  the  importance  which  the  element 


238  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

of  place  bears  to  the  problem.  But  if  not,  let  us  contrast  a  little. 
Is  he  in  central  or  northern  Alabama,  in  August,  or  September, 
of  a  normal  year,  lie  is  in  the  dry  season  of  that  section,  and  if 
any  condition  passes  over  him,  it  is  an  exceptional  belt  of  show- 
ers, drifting  to  the  eastward  from  the  focal  path,  or  a  West  India 
gale  breaking  and  moderating  upon  the  coast. 

That  focal  path  is  now  far  to  the  west  over  Texas  and  Mexico, 
curving  to  the  north  and  east,  spreading  out  in  the  early  years  of 
the  decade,  as  far  as  Fort  Yuma,  and  sometimes,  as  in  1854,  as 
far  as  San  Diego,  to  the  west,  and  giving  New  Mexico  and  the 
northwestern  states  their  summer  supply  of  rain.  And  now  in 
August  the  centre  of  the  focal  path  of  the  Pacific  conditions  has 
moved  up  towards  Sitka,  and  the  whole  coast  from  Astoria  down, 
and  the  interior  northeastwai  d  of  it,  are  in  a  normal  state  of 
drouth.  The  cold,  moist  coast  wind  of  the  ocean  moves  in  upon  the 
land  and  up  the  sides  of  the  Coast  Range,  and  over  their  sum- 
mits daily,  for  months  without  a  shower,  and  without  reaching  the 
San  Joaquin  valley  which  is  said  to  create  them,  belying  the  the- 
ories which  at  the  same  instant  are  being  promulgated  from  at 
least  thirty  Professors'  chairs  in  the  eastern  states.  The  intelli- 
gent reader,  if  uncommitted  to  theory,  and  capable  of  looking 
honestly  at  the  matter,  cannot  doubt,  if  he  would,  the  importance 
of  this  first  preliminary  element,  location. 

II.  The  second  preliminary  element  to  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation, is  the  season  of  the  year.     The  importance  of  this  element 
is  illustrated  by  what  has  already  been  said.     The   element  in- 
deed is  closely  connected  with  the  preceding  one,  and  both   are 
connected  with  the  question,  where  at  the  time  of  observation,  is  the 

focal  path  of  the  system  of  conditions  under  which  the  observer  is 
situated?  Is  that  focal  path  over  him,  or  south,  or  north,  or 
east,  or  west  of  him,  and  how  far  ?  And  what  are  the  probabili- 
ties that  a  condition,  pursuing  the  path,  will  spread  out  so  as  to 
cover  his  locality  at  that  season  of  the  year  ? 

III.  The  third  preliminary  element  is,  what  year  it  is  in  the 
decade,  and  what  the  state  of  the  sun's  surface  in  relation  to  spots. 
We  have  shown  the  effect  which  the  presence  or  absence  of  spots 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  239 

upon  the  sun  have  in  carrying  the  focal  paths  of  the  conditions 
to  the  south  in  winter,  and  extending  them  north  in  summer,  or 
contracting  them  at  both  extremities,  and  affecting  the  rapidity  of 
their  transit  in  the  different  portions  of  the  decade,  and  in  differ- 
ent decades.  No  further  evidence  can  be  required  to  satisfy  the 
honest  and  intelligent  reader  of  the  necessity  of  this  element. 
Indeed,  his  own  experience  must  have  satisfied  him  that  there  is 
great  diversity  in  the  severity  or  mildness  of  the  winters,  and  in 
the  earlier  or  later  occurrence  of  spring,  and  the  continuance  of 
the  rainy  or  dry  seasons.  The  facts  I  have  developed  show  that 
these  diversities  are  dependent,  in  a  considerable  and  appreciable 
degree,  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  power  of  the  sun  is  affected 
by  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  spots,  and  that  there  may  be 
and  probably  are  other  causes  aiding  or  neutralizing  their  effect, 
which  cannot  now  be  regarded,  but  are  sure  to  be  hereafter  de- 
veloped. The  Spectroscope  seems  to  be  opening  the  way  for 
further  discoveries,  and  some  of  interest  have  already  been  made, 
but  I  have  not  deemed  them  sufficiently  proved,  to  be  considered 
in  this  branch  of  our  inquiry. 

There  is  another  class  of  facts  to  which  we  have  more  than 
once  alluded,  which  are  rather  contingencies  than  elements,  but 
which  bear  on  this  subject  and  should  always  be  borne  in  mind, 
and  those  are — First,  that  changes  of  state  may  be  induced  by  a 
condition,  which  may  pass  by  the  particular  locality,  on  one  hand 
or  the  other,  without  precipitating  upon  that  locality  ;  and  second, 
that  a  portion  of  the  conditions — one-fifth  at  least — which  actual- 
ly pass  over  any  given  locality,  are  of  too  feeble  intensity  to  pre- 
cipitate. When  therefore,  the  question  is  whether  there  will  be 
rain  or  snow,  and  the  changes  of  state  indicate  the  influence  of  a 
passing  condition,  these  two  contingencies  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  and  the  intensity  of  the  induced  states  be  regarded  in  com- 
ing to  a  conclusion. 

With  these  preliminary  elements  and  contingencies  well  under- 
stood and  appreciated,  we  may  come  to  the  proposition  which  is 
fundamental  in  this  branch  of  our  inquiry,  viz :  that  all  the  prov- 
erbs and  signs  which  are  of  any  value  in  the  prognostication  of 


240  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

the  weather,  are  founded  upon,  or  connected  with  the  states  in- 
duced by  the  forming,  approaching,  or  passing  conditions,  and  all 
others  are  empirical  and  worthless,  and  should  be  discarded.  And 
the  further  proposition  that  the  local  observer  may  and  must  look 
to  those  changes  of  state,  for  the  evidence  on  which  to  base  an 
intelligent  and  reliable  forecast.  The  time  will  come  when  the 
telegraph  will  extend  his  horizon  and  give  more  certain  results. 
But  it  is  not  yet. 

And  now  what  are  the  states  and  changes  to  which  we  are  to 
look  to  determine  the  immediate  future  ?  There  are  seven,  and 
we  have  already  enumerated  them,  and  traced  them  in  the  order 
in  which  they  occurred  in  two  passing  conditions.  But  we  must 
here  repeat  and  examine  them. 

First.     The  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 

Second.     The  temperature. 

Third.     The  movements  of  the  atmosphere,  or  winds. 

Fourth.     Its  clearness  or  cloudiness. 

Fifth,     Its  humidity. 

Sixth.     In  respect  to  precipitation,  rain,  hail  or  snow. 

Seventh.     Its  electrical  state. 

Strictly  speaking,  perhaps,  the  sixth  should  not  be  included  if  we 
were  looking  to  a  forecast  merely,  for  the  principal  object  in  con- 
sulting the  others  is  to  determine  the  probability  of  the  occurrence 
of  that  particular  state ;  but  our  inquiry  embraces  the  question 
of  character  and  continuance,  as  well  as  of  coming,  and  therefore 
I  include  it. 

Let  us  then  take  up  these  states  severally  and  successively, 
and  see  how  far  our  propositions  are  sustained,  and  how  we  must 
answer  for  ourselves  the  inquiry  involved. 

The  first  in  the  list  is  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  That  it 
has  weight  is  universally  conceded.  Like  every  other  material 
thing  connected  with  the  earth,  though  exceedingly  attenuated 
and  easily  moved,  it  is  controlled  by  the  attraction  of  gravitation, 
and  unaffected  by  the  revolutions  of  the  earth. 

Some  philosophers  have  supposed  that  they  have  detected  a 
diurnal  tide  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  moon,  but  the  fact 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  241 

cannot  be  said  to  be  established,  and  if  it  was,  the  tide  would  be 
too  infinitesimal  to  be  of  importance  in  this  inquiry. 

The  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is  measured  in  two  ways — by  the 
barometer,  and  the  temperature  at  which  water  will  boil  at  the 
time  and  place.  The  boiling  point  of  water  at  the  mean  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  is  212°.  It  boils  at  a  proportionately  less  tem- 
perature, when  the  weight  is  decreased  by  altitude  or  other 
causes.  The  boiling  point  of  water  is  rarely  used  to  ascertain 
the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  with  a  view  to  prognostication,  and 
I  pass  it  by. 

Some  minor  instruments  are  occasionally  used  with  a  view  to 
prognostication  ;  thus,  solutions  of  camphor  and  other  substances 
in  alcohol,  in  long  and  narrow  glass  vessels,  hermetically  sealed 
or  otherwise,  are  sometimes  used,  the  greater  or  less  solution  or 
deposit  of  the  camphor  before  or  after  a  storm,  being  relied  upon 
as  indications.  But  upon  this  instrument  three  of  the  states 
operate,  and  to  some  extent  neutralize  each  other.  Pressure  and 
humidity  operate  from  without  by  endosmosis,  but  the  principal 
agent  is  the  increase  or  diminution  of  pressure  upon  the  surface 
of  the  fluid,  by  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  vapor  and  air 
contained  above  the  fluid  in  the  vessel,  if  hermetically  sealed. 
Another  instrument  similar  in  principle,  is  made  by  inverting  a 
Florence  flask  and  inserting  its  neck  in  another  glass  vessel  partly 
filled  with  colored  water.  An  increase  of  pressure  in  the  atmos- 
phere will  drive  the  water  up  the  neck  of  the  flask,  overcoming 
proportionately  the  resistance  of  the  air  by  compressing  it ;  but 
here  again  another  and  frequently  counteracting  state  of  the 
atmosphere  is  influential,  and  that  is  temperature.  If  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  increases,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  increases 
also,  the  latter  will  counteract  the  effect  of  the  former  by  expand- 
ing the  air  in  the  flask.  When  pressure  increases  and  tempera- 
ture decreases,  the  effect  upon  the  instrument  is  very  observable. 
So  on  the  other  hand,  when  temperature  increases  and  pressure 
decreases,  the  combined  effect  is  quite  obvious,  but  the  instru- 
ment is  very  sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature  in  the  house 
and  is  not  adapted  to  out-door  exposure.  Neither  of  these  in- 


242  THE    ATilOSrilSRIC    SYSTEM. 

struments  are  in  general  use  or  of  material  practical  importance, 
though  both  are  philosophical  and  not  empirical. 

The  barometer  is  the  principal  instrument  in  use  for  the  pur- 
pose of  measuring  atmospheric  pressure.  It  is  made,  as  you  know, 
by  filling  a  glass  tube  32  or  more  inches  long  with  dry  mercury, 
and  inverting  it  into  a  vessel  or  bag  also  containing  mercury. 
The  top  of  the  mercury  settles  in  the  tube  to  about  30  inches  at 
the  level  of  the  sea,  during  a  fair-weather  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere, in  the  polar  zones.  There  is  another  kind  of  barometer 
termed  Aneroid,  which  is  made  without  mercury,  motion  being 
communicated  to  an  index  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on 
the  movable  covering  of  a  vacuum.  The  mercurial  barometer, 
however,  is  the  one  principally  in  use,  and  the  most  certain  and 
reliable. 

The  barometer  indicates  a  slight  diurnal  increase  and  diminu- 
tion of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  in  set  fair  weather,  but 
that  is  of  no  importance  to  our  present  inquiry. 

The  barometer  also  indicates  changes  in  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  occasioned  by  the  inducing  influence  of  passing  con- 
ditions. This  indication  is  often  the  first  change  to  be  perceived. 
Until  quite  recently,  and  perhaps  even  now  in  England,  they  look 
to  &  falling  barometer  only  to  indicate  approaching  rain.  For  a 
long  time  the  barometers  were  constructed  with  movable  indices 
or  pointers,  and  the  word  "  rain  "  was  placed  upon  the  dial  where 
the  position  of  the  pointer  indicated  a  diminution  of  pressure 
below  the  mean,  and  the  words  " set  jair  weather"  where  the 
pointers  indicated  an  increase  of  pressure  above  the  mean. 

It  is  unquestionably  true,  that  all  the  passing  conditions  affect 
the  barometer,  and  true,  as  a  rule,  that  that  influence  is  percepti- 
ble before  the  condition  reaches  the  place  of  observation.  It  is 
further  true  that  the  effect  of  that  influence  is,  sooner  or  later,  to 
depress  the  mercury,  and  the  depression  is  in  proportion  to  the 
intensity  of  the  influence.  If  these  facts  constituted  all  the 
elements  of  the  proposition,  the  barometer  would  be  a  perfectly 
reliable  instrument,  but  there  are  other  facts  which  must  be  taken 
into  the  account.  In  the  first  place,  the  barometer  at  one  season 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  243 

of  the  year,  and  in  one  class  of  conditions,  is  elevated  by  the  first 
effect  of  that  influence,  and  in  respect  to  that  C;ass,  elevation  and 
not  depression  is  the  indication  of  its  approach,  and  the  measure 
of  its  intensity  ;  and  in  the  second  place,  it  has  no  invariable  fair- 
weather  standard,  a  departure  from  which,  by  elevation  or  depres- 
sion, will  indicate  with  certainty  the  character  and  intensity  of 
the  approaching  condition.  Barometers  were  formerly  construct- 
ed in  England,  as  I  have  said,  whereon  the  words  "set  fair 
weather  "  were  placed  above  the  ordinary  mean,  and  "  rain  "  at 
depressions  below  the  mean,  but  they  were  found  deceptive,  and 
are  not  now  so  constructed. 

The  mean  height  of  the  barometer  is  generally  stated  by  meteor- 
ologists, and  in  our  text-books,  as  30  inches  at  the  level  of  the 
sea.  This  is  substantially  accurate  when  taken  for  long  periods 
and  for  all  latitudes,  but  there  is  very  considerable  diversity  in 
different  localities.  A  few  of  the  mean  heights  are  as  follows  : 

The   mean  height  of  the   barometer  in  England,  as  kept  by 

Howard  for  a  great  many  years,  was  -  29.823 

The  mean  of  London,  as  kept  by  Daniell,  was  -       29  92 

The  mean  under  the  central  belt  is  29  92 

"  in  the  N.E.  trades  of  the  Atlantic  it  is         -       29  97 

«  "         «          "         "       Pacific  -  29.99 

«  "       S.E.       "         "       Atlantic  -       29.95 

«  «         «          "         "       Pacific  -  30.01 

"     off  Cape  Horn  it  is  -       29.20 

At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  -  30.22 

The  mean  from  the  northern  limits  of  the  trades  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  is  higher  than  in  the  trades,  differing  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent places,  from  several  causes,  the  principal  of  which  is  the 
difference  in  the  volume  of  the  equatorial  current,  or  upper  trade, 
which  passes  over  the  locality.  The  annual  mean  of  the  United 
States  does  not  differ  materially  from  30  inches. 

But  the  mean  of  30  inches,  thus  spoken  of,  is  the  average  of 
all  fair  weather  elevations,  and  foul  weather  depressions,  and  as 
the  foul  weather  depressions  are  greater  in  extent  than  the  fair 


244  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

weather  elevations,  and  the  latter  differ  very  greatly  in  different 
climates  in  the  same  latitude,  according  to  their  intensity,  it  is 
obvious  that  30  inches  is  not  a  reliable  fair-weather  standard 
for  any  particular  place.  The  greatest  known  fluctuations  of  the 
barometer  were  3J  inches,  and  of  that  range,  at  least  two-thirds 
was  below  the  mean  of  30.  The  barometer  very  rarely  rises 
above  31  in  this  country,  and  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  28,  making 
a  range  of  3  inches,  and  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  the  ranges, 
as  a  rule,  are  twice  as  great  below  30  as  above  it. 

And  there  are  other  difficulties.  The  ranges  and  mean  eleva- 
tion of  the  barometer  differ  in  different  years,  in  different  months 
of  the  same  year,  and  in  different  localities.  The  reader  must 
endeavor  to  get  the  true  fair-weather  .standard  of  his  locality. 
To  aid  him  in  doing  this,  regai  d  must  be  had  to  the  following 
rules  and  considerations. 

In  all  latitudes  the  mean  height  is  low  when  the  passing  con- 
ditions are  frequent  and  intense,  and  that  is  the  main  reason  why 
it  is  so  low  at  Cape  Horn.  There  is  at  that  point  an  almost  con- 
stant passage  of  intense  conditions,  with  consequent  alternations 
of  N.W.  storm  winds,  and  1S.W.  clearing  off  winds.  Eastwardly, 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  barometer  ranges  much  as  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  under  similar  circumstances,  and  so  it  does  on 
the  west  coast  of  South  America,  above  the  Horn.  For  the  same 
reason  mainly,  the  mean  height  of  the  barometer  is  lower  in 
Europe  than  here.  They  have  more  frequent,  though  less  intense 
conditions,  and  the  changes  in  the  barometer  are  more  frequent 
and  the  ranges  less.  At  the  same  time  their  volume  of  upper  trade 
is  also  less.  In  this  country  the  range  of  the  barometer  is  affected 
by  the  same  causes.  It  ranges  lower,  therefore,  under  the  focal 
path  of  the  conditions,  and  during  the  rainy  reason,  than  upon 
either  side  of  it.  And  its  range  differs  in  different  years  also, 
because  the  frequency  and  intensity  of  the  conditions  differ  in 
different  years.  The  first  is  shown  by  the  following  table : 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


245 


o  io  8  £ 
8  3  8  S 


i-H    I— 

3  8 


—    C5    •** 


3  £  3  3  S8  ^ 


rH   l^»   CO   O 

I-    CD    ^>    t- 
O>   O   CO   OO 


i—  oo 

«  « 


s  s 

OS   O) 


S  S  S  8 


2  53 

05   co 


i  §  i 

c-i   1-7   •« 


CD    OO    •*    O5 

S3  S  &  £ 


a  8 


3  s  j  t  :  .2 
*   ~  .5  a   •„  ^a 

0  a  -a  5  s  o 


'S«sa 


21G  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

The  foregoing  table  is  taken  from  Blodgett's  "  Climatology  of 
the  United  States,"  and  contains  all  the  positions  given  in  that 
table  from  the  United  States.  It  will  be  observed  that  there  is 
at  every  station  a  decrease  and  increase  during  the  months  of  the 
year,  and  through  a  substantially  regular  curve.  Meteorologists 
have  attributed  the  decrease  in  spring  and  summer,  and  the  in- 
crease in  winter,  to  the  decrease  and  increase  of  temperature,  but 
they  mistake.  The  increase  and  decrease,  on  the  face  of  the  table, 
must  be  attributed  to  other  causes,  for  at  Para,  Brazil,  where  the 
barometer  is  at  its  minimum  in  November  and  December,  and 
at  its  maximum  in  July,  there  is  no  difference  in  the  temperature 
of  the  place  which  will  account  for  the  elevation  in  July,  and  the 
depression  in  December.  Para  is  near  latitude  2°  8.,  and  the 
sun  is  not  farther  north  of  it  when  the  maximum  elevation  is 
reached  in  July,  than  it  is  south  of  it  when  the  minimum  is 
reached  in  November  and  December,  nor  is  there  a  material  dif- 
ference in  the  temperature  of  the  two  periods.  Moreover  the 
elevation  decreases  as  the  sun  approaches  from  the  north,  and  the 
heat  increases. 

Observe  again,  that  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  the  minimum  is 
reached  in  June,  and  there  is  a  very  rapid  increase  in  July  and 
August,  which  are  the  hottest  months  in  the  year,  and  the  eleva- 
tion is  greater  in  August  than  in  February.  In  those  months  the 
focal  path  is  at  the  north,  and  the  conditions  are  occasional. 
Observe  again,  that  the  minimum  in  Philadelphia  is  reached  in 
May,  and  there  is  an  increase  during  July  and  August.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  Washington  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 
At  Toronto,  Canada,  there  is  an  increase  during  the  spring  until 
May,  when  there  is  a  sudden  depression,  continued  through  June, 
followed  by  an  increase  during  July  and  August.  At  Hudson, 
Ohio,  the  minimum  occurs  in  May,  conforming  to  the  more  rapid 
extension  of  the  focal  path  to  the  northwest  of  the  mountains, 
and  there  is  a  rapid  increase  from  thence  until  September.  At 
Glenwood,  Tenn.,  the  minimum  is  reached  in  April,  and  there  is 
a  rapid  increase  from  thence  to  August.  At  Sitka,  the  minimum 
is  reached  in  December,  and  the  maximum  in  July  as  in  Para. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  217 

The  facts  disclosed  in  this  table,  conform  perfectly  with  my 
observation.  The  barometer  ranges  the  lowest  when  the  focal 
path  of  the  conditions  is  over  us  in  its  ascent  to  the  north,  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer.  Thus,  Glenwood,  Tenn.,  has  its  min- 
imum in  April.  St.  Louis,  Washington,  and  Philadelphia  have 
their  minimum  in  May,  which  is  their  rainy  season.  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  has  its  minimum  in  June,  and  in  Toronto,  Canada,  the  fall 
from  April  to  May  and  June  is  sudden  and  great.  At  Para,  the 
belt  of  rains  is  at  the  north  in  midsummer,  when  the  maximum  oc- 
curs, and  the  subsequent  rapid  fall  is  coincident  with  the  return 
of  the  belt  and  rainy  season,  as  it  is  here.  The  rain  fall  at  Sitka 
is  peculiar,  as  may  be  seen  by  referring  back  to  the  table  we  have 
already  given  ;  and  by  referring  also,  to  a  table  given  of  the  winds 
it  will  be  seen  that  their  winds  are  in  like  manner  peculiar.  The 
rainy  season  does  not  set  in,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  until 
August,  and  their  heaviest  falls  of  rain  are  in  September  and 
October,  the  rainy  season  continuing  until  December.  Thus  there 
is  a  substantial  conformity  between  the  depression  of  the  barom- 
eter and  the  occurrence  of  the  rainy  season,  at  Sitka  also.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  pursue  this  subject  farther.  I  am  satisfied,  and  the 
reader  should  be  satified,  that  neither  the  fact  nor  the  cause  I  have 
assigned  can  be  successfully  questioned.  Certainly  if  he  will 
observe  for  himself,  he  will  be  satisfied. 

In  conformity  with  these  facts,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  ba- 
rometer ranges  highest  on  the  north  and  south  of  the  focal 
pa'hof  the  conditions,  and  in  the  winter  and  autumn.  It  is  fre- 
quently true  in  New  England,  that  its  mean  range  is  so  high  that  it 
does  not  fall  below  30  during  very  considerable  snow  storms  in  win- 
ter. It  is  common  also  in  the  eastern  states  for  it  to  rise  from  -j4^ 
to  T6o  above  30,  when  a  northeast  snow  storm  is  approaching,  and 
still  higher  before  a  thaw.  It  is  during  that  period  of  the  year,  and 
generally  in  the  winter  months,  that  it  attains  its  highest  elevations. 
I  have  rarely  known  it  to  reach  31  at  any  other  sea  on.  The  read- 
er must  be  careful  here,  not  to  mistake.  I  am  speaking  of  the  ba- 
rometer standing  at,  or  corrected  for,  its  elevation  at  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  reader  must  therefore  make  allowance  for  his  eleva- 


248  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

tion,  whatever  it  may  be.  If  his  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  917  feet,  he  should  allow  one  inch  and  proportionately  for 
a  less  elevation.  If  1,860  feet,  he  should  allow  two  inches,  and 
proportionately  for  a  less  elevation.  If  2,830  feet,  he  should  de- 
duct three  inches.  If  3,830  feet,  four  inches.  If  4,861  feet,  five 
inches.  This  is  according  to  the  formula  of  La  Place,  and  in- 
cludes all  corrections.  But  it  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes  in  a  matter  of  this  kind,  to  say,  that  the  barometer 
sinks  an  inch  for  every  thousand  feet  of  ascent,  and  as  a  matter 
of  convenience,  it  is  well  enough  to  do  so.  When  therefore  I 
say  that  the  barometer  frequently  rises  from  ^  to  T^y  above  30? 
I  mean  a  barometer  standing,  as  mine  does,  substantially  at  the 
level  of  the  sea  j  and  the  reader  who  tests  the  accuracy  of  my 
statement,  must  deduct  ^  -fa,  y3ff,  -^  or  more  of  an  inch,  if  his 
altitude  is  1,  2,  3,  4,  or  more  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

What  I  have  said  in  reference  to  the  elevation  of  the  barome- 
ter in  the  winter  season,  on  the  north  of  the  focal  path,  must  be 
understood  as  stating  what  is  generally  true.  There  are  occasion- 
ally severe  and  exceptional  winters,  when  the  focal  path  descends 
low,  and  is  unusually  contracted  and  concentrated,  when  the  ba- 
rometer remains  at  about  30  and  sometimes  even  less  for  very 
considerable  periods.  I  have  known  two  or  three  such  winteis, 
the  wind  holding  steady  but  light  from  W.N.W.  to  N.W.  The 
most  remarkable  instance  I  have  known,  occurred  during  the  cold 
decade  from  1830  to  1840.  In  one  instance  there  was  no  south- 
erly wind,  and  no  condition  passed  over  us  and  very  little  upper 
trade  for  six  weeks.  President  Dwight,  in  his  Travels  and  His- 
tory of  New  England,  describes  two  such  winters  during  the  cold 
decade  from  1780  to  1790.  He  says  :  "  In  1787  the  west  wind 
began  to  blow  about  the  20th  of  November,  and  continued  its 
progress  with  only  four  short  interruptions  until  the  '20th  of  the 
following  March — somewhat  more  than  100  days.  During  the 
whole  time  the  weather  for  the  season  was  very  cold."  Also,  "In 
1780  the  wind  blew  from  the  west  more  than  six  weeks  without 
any  intermission,  and  during  the  whole  of  this  time,  the  weather 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  249 

was  so  cold  that  snow  did  not  dissolve  sufficiently  to  give  drops 
from  the  southern  eaves  of  houses."  It  is  during  the  winter  and 
spring  that  the  N.E.  storms  are  most  common,  and  their  approach 
is  foretold  by  a  rise  of  the  barometer,  and  it  is  during  this  period 
when  the  focus  of  the  condition  passes  to  the  south  of  us,  that 
the  wind  backs  from  the  N.E.  into  the  N.W.  as  the  storm  passes 
by  and  it  is  clearing  off. 

Having  thus  considered  the  peculiarities  attending  the  range  of 
the  barometer  on  the  north  of  the  focal  path,  let  us  look  at  them 
when  the  focal  path  is  over  us,  and  we  are  having  our  rainy  sea- 
son. The  barometer  does  not  then  rise  so  high,  and  sinks  lower. 
Nor  does  it  always  ascend  in  fair  weather  between  the  conditions. 
The  fair  weather  intervals  between  the  conditions  are  less — fre- 
quently not  more  than  twenty-four  hours, — and  sometimes  there 
are  scarcely  any  intervals.  The  air  does  not  become  dry  even 
with  the  northerly  wind.  Wood  work  swells  and  everything  be- 
comes damp  and  sticky,  and  frequently  quite  wet,  and  although 
the  barometer  vibrates  up  and  down,  it  does  not  rise  promptly  to 
any  considerable  elevation  after  the  passage  of  a  condition,  as  at 
other  seasons. 

When  the  focal  path  has  moved  to  the  north  of  us,  and  we 
begin  to  get  the  southerly  winds  of  the  passing  conditions  and 
they  "  clear  off  warm"  and  for  that  reason  "summer  breaks  upon 
us  "  with  some  of  those  hot  days  which  surprise  us  with  their 
contrasts,  the  peculiarities  in  the  action  of  the  barometer  change 
again.  It  does  not  now  indicate  the  approach  of  a  condition  by 
a  sudden  rise.  It  ascends  in  the  interval  to  its  ordinary  summer 
fair  weather  position,  and  what  that  is  in  the  particular  locality 
the  observer  must  determine,  but  rarely  takes  any  of  those  high 
flights  to  which  it  is  subject  in  winter  and  spring.  When  it  feels 
the  influence  of  the  approaching  condition  of  that  season,  a  belt 
of  showers,  it  commences  falling  steadily,  and  falls  rapidly  or 
slowly,  in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  condition,  and  the  ra- 
pidity of  its  approach  ;  rising  again,  slowly  and  steadily,  after  the 
condition  is  past.  This  is  true  in  respect  to  conditions  which  ap- 
proach overland  from  the  west.  It  does  sometimes  rise  on  the 
12 


250  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

approach  of  an  intense  hurricane  condition  up  the  coast,  and  after- 
wards fall  rapidly  and  very  considerably  at  those  places  which  are 
covered  by  the  condition. 

I  do  not  intend  to  give  you  specific  "  Rules  "  for  observation — 
you  can  and  must  deduce  them  from  the  facts — but  in  respct  to 
this  matter  of  a  fair  weather  standard  I  will  say : 

1st.  Your  mean  fair  weather  elevation  of  the  barometer  will 
range  between  30  and  30^  inches,  deducting  therefrom  ^  of  an 
inch  for  every  one  hundred  feet,  or  to  be  perfectly  accurate,  every 
91  and  ^  feet  of  altitude  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Or  to  be 
sufficiently  accurate,  -^  of  an  inch  for  every  91  feet. 

2d.  That  fair  weather  elevation  will  average  higher  in  winter 
when  the  focal  path  is  south  of  the  observer,  in  normal  years, 
than  in  midsummer  when  it  is  at  the  north  of  him.  It  will 
average  lowest  when  the  focal  path  is  over  him  in  spring  and 
early  summer. 

3d.  A  fair  weather  point  cannot  be  fixed  for  either  period,  ex- 
cept approximately.  If  I  should  attempt  to  fix  them  I  should 
say,  30^  for  the  period  when  the  focal  path  is  farthest  south,  if 
not  unusually  concentrated,  30^  when  it  is  farthest  north,  and 
30  when  centrally  focal,  deducting,  as  in  rule  1st,  for  altitude,  and 
scaling  gradually  from  one  to  the  other,  as  the  focal  path  changes 
its  position.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  great  contrac- 
tion and  concentration  of  the  upper  or  counter  trade,  down  upon 
the  southeastern  states,  will  produce  great  cold  and  a  low  fair 
weather  barometer  west  and  north  of  them  in  very  severe  winters. 

It  is  not  my  purpose,  as  I  have  said,  to  give  you  any  general 
rules  or  maxims  in  relation  to  the  indications  of  the  barometer. 
Such  a  collection  could  not  be  of  general  application,  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  in  all  years,  and  in  all  seasons  alike.  No  collec- 
tion of  rules  has  been  made  for  this  country.  Several  have  been 
made  for  Great  Britain.  That  of  Dr.  Brand,  which  embraced 
but  seven  rules,  was  for  a  long  time,  the  popular  one.  It  may  be 
found  in  the  2d  Volume  of  the  "  New  American  Cyclopedia," 
page  657. 

A  much  longer  list  has  recently  been  published  by  Mr.  Stein- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  251 

metz  in  his  work  entitled  "  Sunshine  and  Showers."     It  may  be 
instructive  to  take  up  this  list  and  analyze  it,  and  see  whether 
any  additional  light  is  thrown  upon  the  subject. 
His  rules  are  as  follows  : 

I.  "  It  the  barometer  has  been  about  its  ordinary  height,  say 
30  inches  at  the  sea-level,  and  is  steady  or  rising,  whilst  the  ther- 
mometer falls,  and  dampness  becomes  less,  then  northwesterly, 
northerly,  or  northeasterly  wind,  or  less  wind,  less  rain  or  snow 
may  be  expected." 

This  merely  describes  the  clearing  off  change  of  a  condit:on 
of  very  weak  intensity. 

II.  "  If  a  fall  take  place  with  a  rising  thermometer,  and  in- 
creased dampness,  wind  and  rain  may  be  expected  from  the  south- 
eastward, southward,  southwestward." 

This  describes  three  indications  of  a  coming  southerly  rain,  a 
change  in  weight,  temperature,  and  humidity. 

III.  "In  winter,  a  fall  with  a  low  barometer foretels  snow." 
I  have  seen  nothing  of  this  kind  in  our  climate. 

IV.  "  A  fall  of  the  barometer,  with  unusually  high  tempera- 
ture for  the  season,  will   be   followed  by  a  southerly  wind,  with 
rain ;  and  during   the  gale  the  barometer  may  begin  to  rise,  and 
be  followed  by  another  from  the  northward ;  but  then  the  ther- 
mometer will  fall  for  change  of  temperature,  and  show  the  direc- 
tion of  the  coming  wind." 

This  describes  the  programme,  in  part,  of  an  intense  belt  of 
showers  or  of  a  southeaster,  like  those  on  pages  14  and  24. 

V.  "But  northerly  winds  will  follow  a  fall  of  the  barometer 
at  all  times,  if  the  thermometer  below  (for  the  season)  and  south- 
erly wind  if  the  thermometer  be  high  for  the  sea^n." 

The  first  part  of  this  is  a  mere  description,  by  way  of  contra-t, 
of  the  order  of  events  when  the  condition  has  nearly  passed,  and 
it  is  about  to  clear  off — the  second,  the  order  of  events  when  it  is 
approaching. 

VI.  "  The  barometer  is  lowest  of  all  during  a  thaw  following 
a  long  frost.^ 

The  same  is  true  here  in  our  winter  thaws,  which  are  warm 
southeasters. 

VII.  "  In  like  manner  the  glass  falls  very  low  with  south  and 
west  winds  in  general." 

All  this  means  is,  that  the  barometer  falls,  as  a  rule,  lowest  on 
the  southerly  side  and  with  the  southerly  winds  of  a  condition. 

VIII.  "  If  the  barometer  falls  with  the  wind  in  the  north,  we 


252  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

must  prepare  for  weather  of  the  worst  description, — rain  and 
Storms  in  summer,  snow  and  severe  frosts  in  winter  and  early 
spring." 

A  general  description  of  the  comparative  severity  of  north- 
easters. 

IX.  "  A  rapid  rise  in  winter,  after  bad  weather,  is  usually 
followed  by  clear  skies  and  hard,  white  frosts." 

This  is  merely  descriptive  of  a  clearing  off,  and  is  repetition. 

X.  "  During  frosty  weather,  if  the  barometer  falls  it  denotes 
a  thaw ;  but  if  the  wind  goes  again  to  the  north,  the  mercury 
will  rise  and  the  frost  set  in  again." 

Descriptive  of  the  passage  of  a  weak,  brief,  and  imperfect  con- 
dition. 

XL  "  During  broken  and  cold  weather  in  the  winter,  with 
northerly  winds,  a  sudden  rise  of  the  barometer  foreshows  a 
change  of  the  wind  to  the  southward,  with  rain." 

It  is  otherwise  here — such  a  sudden  rise  is  followed  by  a  north- 
easter. 

XII.  "  If,  during  a  northerly  and  easterly  wind  in  winter,  the 
barometer  rises  slowly,  expect  snow  or  cloudy  weather." 

Common  in  our  winter  northeasters,  where  the  first  rise  is  slow, 
but  becomes  rapid  before  the  storm  appears. 

XIII.  "  In  a  continuous  frost,  if  the  mercury  rise,  it  will  cer- 
tainly snow." 

Same  as  preceding. 

XIV.  "  Whilst  the  barometer  stands  above  30,  the  air  must 
be  very  dry  or  very  cold,  or  perhaps  both,  and  no  rain  may  be 
expected." 

True  enough  probably.  30  is  probably  the  fair  weather  point 
there. 

XV.  "  Of  course  a  great  rise  in  summer  means  dry  and  warm 
weather,  and  if  this  be  of  long  duration,  the  question  is,  how  will 
it  end  ?     If  a  sudden  fall,  of  two  or  three-tenths  occur,  we  must 
prepare  for  a  storm  of  rain,  or  thunder  and  rain.     This  usually 
follows  a  period  of  unusual  heat,  unless  northerly  and   easterly 
winds  are  to  succeed  with  drouth." 

This  is  scarcely  intelligible.  If  true  there,  it  is  untrue  and  is 
inapplicable  here.  A  "  great  rise  "  does  not  precede  our  summer 
belt,  nor  is  it  common  during  our  drouths. 

XVI.  "  Thunder  storms  are  not  always  foretold  by  the  ba- 
rometer ;  indeed  the  barometer  cannot  indicate  electricity,  as  some 
of  the  barometer  maxims  seem  to  infer.     We  mu<t  consult  the 
clouds  and  our  feelings  for  thunder.     The  barometer  falls,  but 
not  always,  on  the  approach  of  thunder  and  lightning.  It  is  in  very 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  253 

hot  weather  that  the  fall  of  the  mercury  indicates  thunder. 
Tliuiiuer  clouds  rising  from  northeastward  ayainst  the  wind,  do 
not  usually  cause  a  fail  in  the  barometer,  simply  because  they 
are  borne  onward  by  a  pf>lar  current,  which  is  dense.  An  ap- 
proaching thunder  storm  is  indicated  by  a  rapid  decrease  of  the 
daily  evaporation  during  hot  weather." 

This  is  unimportant,  in  relation  to  the  barometer  here.     Thun- 
der clouds  do  not  rise  from  the  northeast  with  us. 

XVII.  u  A  rising  barometer — with  a  southerly  wind — is  gen- 
erally followed  by  fine  weather ;  but  then  it  will  be  generally 
observed  that  a  change  of  wind  occurs  a,t  the  same  time,  or  very 
shortly  after." 

A  mere  general  description  of  the  action  of  the  barometer  after 
a  clear  off,  and  before  the  wind  has  had  time  to  change. 

XVIII.  "  During  storms  the  mercury  will  be  seen  to  rise  and 
fall  continually,  and  to  be  in  a  state  of  general  agitation.     While 
this  lasts,  no  nope  of  good  weather  can  be  entertained." 

Sometimes  occurs  here  in  the  rainy  season. 

XIX.  *'  Although  some  rain  may  occasionally  fall  with  a  high 
barometer,  it  is  usually  of  trifling  amount,  and  of  short  duration." 

Applicable  only  to  passing  squalls  from  the  northwest,  such  as 
described,  and  conditions  passing  by  at  the  south. 

XX.  "  When  the  barometer  stands  very  low  indeed,  there  will 
never  be  much  rain  ;  although,  on  the  other  hand,  a  fine  day  will 
seldom  occur  at  such  times.     The  air  must  be  very  warm  or  very 
moist  or  both,  and  so  there  will  be  only  short  heavy  showers,  with 
sudden  squalls  of  wind  from  the  west." 

Describes  the  action  of  the  instrument  in  their  rainy  season. 
Here  everything  is  more  intense  in  that  season. 

XXI.  "  A  sudden  fall  of  the  barometer,  with  a  westerly  wind, 
is  sometimes  followed  by  a  violent  storm  from  N.W.  to  N.N.E." 

Unknown  here. 

XXII.  "  In  summer,  after  a  long  continuance  of  fair  weather, 
the  barometer  will  fall  gradually  for  two  or  three  days  before  rain 
come* ;  but  if  the  fall  be  very  sudden,  then  a  thunderstorm  is  at 
hand." 

True  everywhere  in  respect  to  a  belt  of  showers  ;  but  it  is  rep- 
etition. 

IXII 1.  "When   ihe   barometer  is  high,  dark,  dense  clouds 
will  pass  over  the  sky,  without  rain  ;  but  if  the   glass  be  low,  it 
will  often  rain  without  any  appearance  of  clouds." 

The  dark,  dense  clouds  are  N.W.  scud,  from  which  no  rain 
falls  except  in  short  squalls — rain  without  cloud  I  never  saw. 


254  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

XXIV.  "  If  wet  weather  happens  soon  after  the  fall  of  the 
barometer,  there  w  11  be  little  of  it.     In  fair  weather,  if  the  glass 
falls  much,  and  remains  low,  expect  much  wet  in  a  few  clays,  and 
probably  wind.     In  wet  weather,  if  the  glass  continues   lo  fall, 
expect  much  wet." 

The  first  part  of  this  relates  to  belts  of  showers  which  proba- 
bly do  not  precipitate  much  in  that  climate.  The  rest  looks  like 
the  occurrence  of  the  rainy  season. 

XXV.  "  The  barometer  sinks  lowest  of  all  for  wind  and  rain 
together ;  next  for  wind,  except  it  be  an  east  or  northeast  wind." 

That  is  to  say  it  will  not  fall  so  low  in  a  weak  condition  that 
does  not  precipitate,  as  it%  will  in  an  intense  one  that  does. 

XXVI.  "  Instances  of  fine  weather  with  a  low  glass  occur, 
however,  rarely ;  but  they  are  alway.3  forerunners  to  a  duration 
of  wind  or  rain,  if  not  both." 

Not  intelligible,  unless  it  refers  to  an  occasional  clear  day  in 
the  rainy  season. 

XXVII.  u  Our  storms  are  generally  announced  by  a  fall  of 
the  barometer,  and  a  tendency  of  the   wind  towards  east  and 
south  ;  the  return  of  fine  weather,  by  a  rise  and  a  pretty  strong 
west  wind,  apparent  in  the  motions  of  the  clouds  before  it  is  felt 
below." 

A  restatement  of  the  order  of  events  on  the  occurrence  of  a 
class  of  condition-; — applicable  everywhere  in  the  hemisphere. 

XXVIII.  "  A  great  and  sudden  change,  either  from  hot  to 
cold   or  from    cold  to  hot,  is  generally  followed   by  rain  within 
twenty-four  hours  ;  because,  in  the  change  from  hot  to  cold,  the 
cold  condenses  the  a?r  and  its  vapor,  which  being  condensed,  fails 
in  rain ;  and  in  the  change  from  cold  to  hot,  the  air  is  quickly 
saturated  with  moisture,  and  as  ?oon  as  night  comes  on,  the  tem- 
perature is  lowered  again,  and  some  of  the  abundant  moisture 
falls  in  rain." 

.Not  true  here.  A  great  change  from  hot  to  cold  follows,  but 
is  not  followed  by  rain  in  our  climate,  unless  it  be  a  brief  N.W. 
squall. 

XXIX.  "  When  heat  rapidly  follows  cold,  the   evaporation, 
which  was  checked  by  cold,  is  carried  on  very  rapidly,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  diminished  pressure  of  the  air  by  heat.     The  less 
the    pressure   of  the    air,  the   more   rapid   the    evaporation   of 
moisture." 

The  application  of  this  t  >  the  barometer  is  not  apparent. 

XXX.  "  The   barometer  varies  most  in  winter,  because  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones 
is  much  greater,  and  produces  a  greater  disturbance  in  the  state 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  255 

of  the  air.  It  varies  least  in  summer,  because  the  temperature 
of  our  island  is  so  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  torrid  zone  or  hot 
regions  of  the  earth,  that  its  state  is  not  much  disturbed  by  inter- 
change of  currents." 

This  is  philosophy,  and  not  a  "  rule." 

XXXI.  "  Heat  and  cold  do  not  of  themselves  affect  the  bar- 
ometer, but  because  cold  weather  is  either  generally  dry  or  rough, 
with  N.E.  winds,  the  air  being  denser  and  heavier — therefore  the 
mercury  rises  in   cold  weather,  but  in  warm  weather,  the  air  is 
often  moist  and  less  dense,  with  S.  W.  winds  and  therefore  lighter, 
and  so  its  pressure  is  less,  thus  causing  the  mercury  to  fall." 

Philosophy  again  and  unimportant. 

XXXII.  "  If  the   top  of  the  column  of  mercury  be  convex, 
or  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides,  it  is  rising  ;  if  lower,  or 
concave,  it  is  falling.     This  is  caused  by  the  attraction  of  the  glass- 
tube  in  contact  with  the  mercury." 

True  everywhere,  and  worthy  of  attention  where  slight  changes 
are  important. 

"  Such  are  the  chief  rules  and  maxims  of  the  barometer  with 
reference  to  agricultural  pursuits,  the  season-;,  and  the  crops." 
(Sunshine  and  Showers,  pages  259-265.) 

I  have  thus  separately  examined  the  rules  copied  from  Mr. 
Steinrnetz.  It  is  obvious  they  might  be  very  much  condensed 
and  much  more  clearly  expressed.  It  is  equally  obvious  that  they 
might  be  much  more  certain  and  reliable,  even  for  that  climate, 
if  the  action  they  describe  was  connected  \\iih  an  intelligent  de- 
scription of  the  different  conditions  to  which  the  different  rules 
relate.  No  rules  can  be  of  value  unless  so  connected  with  a  de- 
scription of  the  peculiar  conditions  on  which  they  are  founded. 
In  the  foregoing  pages"  I  have  given  my  readers  a  description  of 
the  action  of  the  barometer,  in  connection  with  the  disc.r  ption  of 
the  conditions,  and  at  the  various  seasons,  and  they  will  find  little 
or  nothing  in  the  English  rules  that  will  be  new,  or  independently 
useful  to  them. 

The  second  state  which  is  an  element  in  prognostication  i-  tern 
perature.    This  is  important  in  connection  with  the  other  elements, 
as  an  indication  of  the  approach  of  a   condition,  and   important 
also  as  furnishing  an  indication  of  its  character  and  continuance, 


256  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

but  still  more  important  to  t  e  considered  in  relation  to  its  changes, 
when  the  condition  is  passing  away.  Let  us  consider  it  in  the 
three  points  of  view. 

First,  as  furnishing  an  indication  of  the  approach  of  a  condi- 
tion. In  winter,  when  the  normal  state  of  clear  cold  weather 
exists,  among  the  other  early  indications  of  the  approach  of  a 
stormy  condition,  is  an  increase  of  temperature.  I  have  illustra- 
ted this  so  often  in  the  course  of  the  developments  I  have  made, 
that  it  ought  now  to  be  clearly  impressed  upon  your  minds. 
Under  the  circumstances  mentioned,  it  always  "moderates  to  storm" 
No  more  perfect  illustration  or  description  of  that  truth  can  be 
given,  than  in  the  two  descriptions  of  storms  as  they  occurred 
within  the  Arctic  circle,  copied  in  the  last  chapter,  from  the  reg- 
ister of  Dr.  Kane.  It  will  be  sufficient  therefore  to  add  here,  that 
as  an  indication  of  the  approach  of  a  winter-storm,  which  is  invari- 
ably present,  and  nearly  simultaneous  with  the  rise  of  the  barom- 
eter and  the  appearance  of  cirrus  condensation,  it  should  always 
be  looked  for  and  regarded.  Unless  there  is  a  moderation  of  the 
temperature,  commencing  about  the  same  time  or  soon  after,  the 
other  indications  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 

When  the  season  advances,  and  the  mean  daily  temperature  is 
above  65°,  an  elevation  of  the  thermometer  is  not  to  be  expected 
upon  the  approach  of  a  northeast  storm.  In  the  hdtest  seasons 
of  the  year,  the  temperature  never  exceeds  70°,  during  a  north- 
east storm.  When  it  ranges  above  that  in  the  daytime,  but  on  a 
given  day  fails  to  rise  higher,  or  having  risen  falls  to  that  point  or 
below,  it  is  as  certain  an  indication  of  the  character  of  the  ap- 
proaching condition,  as  the  precedent,  sudden  and  considerable 
rise  of  the  barometer  is. 

During  the  rainy  season,  changes  of  temperature,  though  less 
distinctly  marked,  are  worthy  of  note,  as  indications.  The  prev- 
alent winds  during  that  season, — if  it  occur  in  the  spring  or  earb 
summer, — are  easterly,  and  their  chilliness  proverbial. 

In  relation  to  the  approach  of  a  belt  of  showers,  temperatui 
is  an  important  indication.     It  always  rises  high,  and  above  the 
mean  of  the  season,  on  the  southeasterly  side  of  those  belts ;  it 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  257 

is  therefore  a  distinguishing  characteristic,  as  well  of  their  ap- 
proach, as  their  intensity.  The  "  hot  spells"  as  our  fathers  called 
them, — " heated  terms"  as  it  is  now  the  fashion  to  characterize 
them — are  an  elemental  part  of  the  condition,  and  the  excessive 
he  it  is  created  by  the  cause  which  organizes  and  continues  the  con- 
dition. Very  hot  weather  sometimes  occurs  in  midsummer,  dur- 
ing drouths,  which  is  not  connected  with,  or  a  part  of  an  approach- 
ing condition,  but  is  the  mere  effect  of  an  unclouded  sun,  operat- 
ing upon  a  dry  and  heated  soil.  Two  characteristics,  however, 
distinguish  the  incident  heat  of  the  condition,  £om  the  mere  heat 
created  by  the  sun.  1st,  The  latter  does  not  rise  so  high,  and  it 
cools  off  by  radiation,  at  night,  rarely  rising  to  90°,  in  the  day 
time,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  unless  there  has  been  a  long 
continued  drouth,  and  cooling  off  during  the  night  to  70°,  or  below. 
In  the  2d  place,  the  incident  heat  of  an  approaching  condition  is 
both  humid  and  electric — a  state  which  is  variously  described  as 
sultry,  muggy,  close,  &c., — and  the  temperature  continues  high 
through  the  night  and  into  the  morning  when  the  condition  is  to 
arrive.  The  humid,  electric,  muggy  heat  of  an  approaching  in- 
tense belt  of  showers,  would  be  scarcely  endurable,  if  it  was  not 
tempered  by  the  accompanying  incident,  southerly  wind.  All  this 
will  address  itself  to  common  experience. 

Temperature  is  also  an  important  element  in  relation  to  the 
character  which  the  storm  will  assume.  In  the  middle  latitudes 
of  the  country  it  is  usually  an  interesting  inquiry  whether  a  com- 
ing winter  storm  will  be  one  of  snow  or  rain,  and  one  of  the  ele- 
ments by  which  this  que  tion  is  answered,  is  temperature. 

Snow  sometimes  falls  from  the  northwest  ecud  in  squalls,  for  a 
few  moments  or  even  half  an  hour,  early  in  the  spring  and  late 
in  the  fall,  when  the  thermometer  is  considerably  above  the  freez- 
ing point.  Snow  sometimes  also  falls  in  the  early  part  of  storms, 
after  the  thermometer  has  risen  above  the  freezing  point,  but 
unless  the  thermometer  falls  again  soon,  the  snow  will  turn  to 
rain ;  for  snow  does  not  often  fall  for  any  great  length  of  time 
with  the  thermometer  above  the  freezing  point,  and  when  it  does, 
it  is  usually  in  large  flakes,  which  indicate  that  it  is  about  to  turn 


2o8  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

to  rain.  Fnow  sometimes  falls  with  the  thermometer  near  zero, 
but  such  instances  are  rare.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  Arctic 
circle,  in  a  storm  described  by  Dr.  Kane,  the  thermometer  rose 
to  about  zero.  So  when  a  snow  storm  is  approaching  in  the  mid- 
dle latitudes  of  this  country,  if  the  thermometer  is  near  zero,  the 
temperature  generally  rises  about  20°  before  the  snow  falls.  The 
usual  range  of  temperature  in  snow  storms,  there-ore,  between 
the  latitudes  3-j°  and  5  >°,  is  from  20°  to  30°,  according  to  lati  ude, 
and  the  severity  of  the  season.  Between  40°  and  41°,  according 
to  my  observation,  the  thermometer  ranges  from  24°  to  30°  from 
the  commencement  to  the  close  of  such  a  storm,  in  the  majority 
of  instances. 

Rain  sometimes  falls  when  the  thermometer  is  low.  I  have 
often  heard  the  expression,  "  it  is  too  cold  to  snow,"  and  also  the 
expression,  "  it  is  going  to  rain,  it  is  too  cold  for  snow,"  and  there- 
is  seeming  truth  in  both.  As  to  the  first,  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  it  is  obviously  founded  on  the  experienced  fact  that  it  gener- 
ally does  moderate  up  to  a  certain  point  before  it  snows,  but  the 
moderation  does  not  cause  the  snow ;  it  is  but  an  incident  effect 
of  the  storm  action.  So  it  is  an  experienced  fact  that  rain  fe- 
quently  falls  when  the  thermometer  ranges  lower  than  the  ordin- 
a  y  snow  point,  freezing  to  the  trees  and  constituting  what  is  com- 
monly called'an  ice-storm  ;  but  there  again  the  fall  of  rain  is  not  oc- 
casioned by  the  continued  low  temperature,  but  by  a  warm  souther- 
ly current  in  the  upper  part  of  the  surface  story,  the  storm  being 
exceptional,  and  liav'ng  its  focus  to  the  north.  Neither  expres- 
sion therefore  is  philosophically  correct. 

Very  warm  southe^sters  sometimes  oc'cur,  even  in  severe  win- 
ters, and  one  or  two  may  be  expected  m  ordinary  winters,  in 
January,  for  "  January  thaws  "  are  proverbial.  They  are  usually 
southeaster,  caused  by  a  very  large,  concentrated,  and  exceptional 
irruption  of  the  counter  or  upper  trade,  west  and  north  of  the  then 
focal  path;  having  a  warm  area  on  the!r  eastern  f •  on t,  corres- 
ponding to  the  l:ot  area  which  they  present  on  the  same  front  in 
the  summer  months.  The  one  whit  h  I  described  in  the  firs'; 
chapter,  and  wl.ich  is  represented  by  the  diagram  on  page  24,  ij 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  259 

a  fair  representation  of  such  a  storm  ;  except  that,  as  that  one  oc- 
curred in  autumn,  its  path  at  its  commencement  was  farther  to  the 
west  than  is  usual  with  winter  southeast  thaws.  The  thermometer, 
in  the  advancing  portion  of  such  a  storm,  will  attain  an  elevation 
of  from  40°  to  50°,  and  sometimes  more,  whatever  its  previous 
depression  may  have  been  ;  and  it  notunfrequently  happens  tliat 
the  thermometer  is  near  zero  in  northern  New  England  when  it 
is  at  45°  in  the  same  latitude  at  the  Mississippi  river,  on  the  front 
of  the  storm.  But  in  such  cases,  the  warm  area  of  the  advanc- 
ing storm  raises  the  temperature  to  45°,  when  it  arrives  over  New 
England  the  following  day. 

Warm  periods  of  several  days  continuance,  without  distinct 
storm  action,  sometimes  occur,  even  in  midwinter,  especially  in  the 
early  years  of  the  decade.  In  such  cases,  the  barometer  attains 
gradually  a  very  high  elevation,  and  it  is  at  such  times  that  I  have 
seen  it  as  high  as  31  inches.  The  thermometer  does  not  then  at- 
tain a  sudden  and  excessive  elevation — indeed  it  never  does  except 
from  intense  storm  action  in  our  latitudes — but  it  does  attain  an 
agreeable  elevation,  commonly  and  aptly  expressed  by  the  term 
"mild"  Those  exceptional  states  of  the  weather  are  produced  by 
an  increased  volume  of  counter  or  upper  trade,  generally  diffused 
over  the  whole  country,  and  not  concentrated  in  a  large  body,  or  a 
long  band,  or  upon  the  usual  focal  path,  so  as  to  make  a  storm. 

The  thermometer  may  also  be  watched  during  the  existence  of 
storms,  with  reference  to  their  continuance.  In  a  northeast 
storm  in  the  spring  of  the  year  and  at  other  seasons,  when  the 
focus  of  the  storm  is  to  the  southeast  of  the  observer,  if  the  ther- 
mometer falls  and  the  wind  backs  into  the  north,  the  rain  is 
usually  at  an  end.  The  wind  will  continue  to  back  to  the  N.W., 
and  it  will  soon  after  light  up  in  that  quarter,  and  fair  weather 
return  as  the  storm  passes  away  to  the  eastward.  If,  however,  it 
veers  back  to  the  N.E.  it  will  continue.  In  those  northeasters 
where  the  focus  is  over  the  observer,  or  to  the  north  of  him,  the 
cessation  of  the  rain  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  rise  in  the  ther- 
mometer, and  a  temporary  lull  in  the  wind,  followed  by  the  wind 
afterwards  coming  out  from  the  west  and  hauling  slowly  into  the 


260  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

northwest.  A  similar  lull  sometimes  occurs  in  southeasters  with 
a  fall  of  the  thermometer.  The  rain  is  then  over.  If  the  wind 
has  been  very  heavy  from  the  southeast,  this  lull  will  be  followed 
by  a  sudden  change  to  the  northwest.  This  is  most  common  in 
the  intense  hurricane  storms  which  come  up  the  coast.  In  a  ma- 
'  jority  of  the  southeasters,  the  wind  hauls  gradually  round  through 
the  southwest  and  west  to  the  northwest,  the  thermometer  rising 
gradually. 

A  very  sudden  change  in  the  thermometer  is  frequently  expe- 
rienced when  a  belt  of  showers  is  passing  over  us  with  or  with- 
out a  change  of  wind  to  the  northward.  The  southerly  wind 
usually  lulls  before  the  precipitating  body  of  the  cloud  reaches  us, 
and  in  many — though  not  perhaps  the  majority  of  instances — 
there  is  a  heavy  gust  from  the  westward  preceding  the  fall  of  rain 
and  continuing  during  that  fall.  Such  gusts  are  frequently  ac- 
companied by  a  very  considerable  fall  in  the  temperature. 

All  the  conditions  which  have  a  southerly  wind,  and  a  warm  or 
hot  area  on  their  easterly  or  southeasterly  sides,  have  northerly 
winds  and  a  cool  or  cold  area  on  their  westerly  or  northerly  sides. 
Changes  in  the  thermometer  in  a  few  hours  are  sometimes  very 
great.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  in  adequate  terms  the  impor- 
tance of  understanding  and  heeding  this  fact,  for  it  is  thus  that 
the  sudden  changes  from  heat  to  cold  are  produced.  Let  it  be 
understood  that  the  frame  which  is  now  sweltering  with  all  its 
pores  open,  in  a  humid  atmosphere  of  85°  or  perhaps  90°  on  the 
hot  side  of  a  condition,  will,  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  by  the 
operation  of  perfectly  intelligible  and  unalterable  laws,  in  a  few 
hours  be  exposed  to  the  chilling  temperature  of  60°  or  65°  under 
the  cold  side  of  it,  and  the  additional  chill  occasioned  by  a  rapid 
evaporation  in  its  peculiar  dry  air.  And  let  it  be  understood  that 
it  is  by  such  changes,  so  occurring  and  so  capable  of  being  fore- 
casted, but  which  are  unregarded,  that  a  great  majority  of  the 
diseases  which  bring  suffering  and  death  to  our  dwellings,  are  pro- 
duced. A  word  to  the  wise  is  said  to  be  sufficient,  but  how  many 
parents  are  wise  for  their  children,  to  protect  them  against  these 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  261 

fatal  changes  ?     How  many  are  wise  for  themselves,  and  aim  to 
understand  the  inevitable  change,  and  guard  against  its  influence  ? 

In  the  hope  of  exciting  your  attention  to  this  matter  as  it  de- 
serves, let  me  direct  it  to  the  following  diagram,  copied  from  a 
work  by  Dr.  Torrey,  which  represents  these  sudden  changes  in 
a  striking  and  accurate  manner.  The  Dr.  took  first  the  monthly 
and  annual  temperature  at  Key  West,  which  is  an  island  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Peninsula  of  Florida.  He  first  rep- 
resents the  isothermal  line  of  76°,  which  is  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  the  place,  by  a  dotted  line.  He  then  represents  by 
a  large  white  line  the  mean  monthly  temperature,  which  is  at  68° 
in  the  month  of  January,  and  rises  gradually,  though  somewhat 
irregularly  to  81°  in  July,  and  descends  again  to  68°  in  January. 
Crossing  this  line,  are  the  connected  perpendicular  lines,  showing 
the  extreme  changes  from  cold  to  hot  which  occur  in  each  month. 
The  changes  are  not  very  great  at  Key  West.  But  in  contrast 
with  them,  he  gives  a  representation  of  the  annual  temperature 
and  monthly  changes  at  Fort  Snelling,  Minnesota,  projected  upon 
the  diagram  in  like  manner.  These  projections  represent  the 
temperature  and  changes  at  extreme  points,  and  the  temperature 
and  changes  at  the  place  where  the  reader  resides,  if  between  the 
two,  will  vary  in  a  corresponding  degree.  But  he  may  see  at  a 
glance  how  very  great  these  changes  are  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  during  every  month,  and  the  importance  of  watching 
them  and  guarding  against  their  fatal  influences.  The  horizontal 
lines  represent  degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

And  in  this  connection  let  me  say,  that  it  is  after  one  of  these 
belts  has  passed,  and  after  its  northerly  wind  has  blown  for  a  day 
or  two,  that  we  have  our  unseasonable  frosts.  That  is  the  time  to 
look  out  for  them  in  August  and  September.  In  a  majority  of 
cases  the  dreaded  '*  first  frost,"  does  not  occur  early  in  September, 
unless  the  northerly  wind  continues  two  days;  but  it  does  sometimes 
come  in  the  first  night  after  the  clearing  off.  Frost  makes  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  as  soon  as  my  thermometer,  hanging  5  feet 
from  the  ground,  falls  below  40°,  and  if  the  thermometer  is  at  or 
below  50°  at  sundown,  frost  is  very  probable,  if  the  night  is  still 
and  clear.  After  the  wind  has  blown  from  the  northward  through 


262 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    38. 


SI 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  263 

the  day  the  thermometer  falls  rapidly  after  night  fall.  "Wind  or 
(Cloudiness  prevent  frost,  but  both  may  disappear  before  morning 
and  frost  ensue. 

The  third  state  which  is  an  element  in  prognostication  is  the 
wind.  The  importance  of  this  element  is  apparent.  The  con- 
ditions themselves  are  characterized  as  northeasters,  southeaster, 
etc.,  by  their  special  and  pecu 'iar  winds  ;  and  that  the  southerly 
winds,  according  to  their  freshness  and  earne  tness,  are  reliable 
indications  of  the  approach  and  intensity  of  the  showery  condi- 
tions, we  have  more  than  once  had  occasion  to  observe.  Jfreezes 
are  often  local,  but  there  are  no  fresh,  earnest  winds,  unless  created 
by  the  influence  of  some  approaching  or  passing  condition,  and 
the  quarter  from  which  they  blow,  and  their  force,  are  consequent- 
ly among  the  most  reliable  indications  we  have.  Ordinarily  the 
wind  and  its  direction  and  force  are  felt,  or  indicated  by  the 
wind  vane  ;  but  it  is  often  observable  before  it  is  felt  at  the  sur- 
face, by  its  scud,  or  by  sounds.  Thus,  sounds  from  the  point  from 
which  the  wind  is  blowing  above,  heard  with  unusual  distinctness, 
are  sometimes  the  very  first  changes  noticed. 

The  roar  of  the  surf,  or  breaking  of  the  waves  on  the  shore, 
when  great  bodies  of  water  are  disturbed  by  a  precedent  storm- 
wind,  often  heard  before  the  wind  is  perceived  on  the  land,  I  have 
already  alluded  to.  And  thus  Virgil : 

"When  storms  are  brooding — in  the  lee  ward  gulf 
Dash  the  swelled  waves;  the  mighty  mountains  pour 
A  harsh,  dull  murmur;  far  along  the  beach 
Rolls  the  deep  rushing  roar." 

Those  of  us  who  live  on  the  shores  of  Long  Inland  Sound,  or 
nny  of  the  harbors  or  coasts  of  the  Atlantic.,  or  the  lakes,  can 
realize  the  truth  of  the  foregoing.  I  have  often  heard  the  roar 
of  the  surf  before  an  easterly  storm,  several  hours  before  the 
wind  was  felt  at  my  house  three  miles  from  the  shore. 

The  moaning  or  whistling  of  the  wind  all  have  noticed.  It  is 
not  uncommon  to  hear  the  expression,  "  The  wind  sounds  like 
rain."  Jcnner  says  : 

"  The  hollow  winds  begin  to  blow." 


264:  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

And  Virgil : 

"  The  whispering  grove 
Betrays  the  gathering  elemental  strife." 

This  whispering  is  the  motion  of  the  leaves  ;  and  they  are  often 
stirred  by  a  peculiar  motion  which  is  not  that  of  wind.  Some- 
times every  leaf  upon  a  tree  may  be  seen  vibrating  with  an  up- 
ward and  downward  motion,  when  there  is  not  wind  enough  to 
stir  a  twig.  This  interesting  phenomenon  is  electrical.  Trees, 
and  all  vegetables,  confessedly  discharge  electricity,  and  such  dis- 
charges move  the  leaves,  when  very  active.  But  the  wind  soon 
follows. 

With  us,  sounds  can  be  heard  more  distinctly  from  the  east  or 
south,  before  storms,  according  to  the  character  of  the  coming 
wind.  Howard  mentions  an  instance  when  he  heard  carriages  five 
miles  off.  Steamboat  paddles,  railroad  cars,  and  other  sounds,  are 
often  heard  a  great  distance.  The  distance  at  which  the  now 
common  steam-whistle  is  heard,  and  the  direction,  is  not  an  unim- 
portant auxiliary  indication  of  the  weather.  Howard  attributes 
these  peculiar  phenomena  to  the  "  sounding  board,"  made  by  the 
stratum  of  cloud;  but  sounds  may  be  heard  from  the  north-west, 
when  there  is  no  condensation,  and  the  wind  is  from  that  quarter, 
and  also  from  the  east  when  it  is  not  cloudy ;  and  in  a  level  coun- 
try the  village  bells  often  tell  the  direction  of  the  current  of  air 
just  over  our  heads  when  we  do  not  feel  it  at  the  surface.  The 
wind  is  undoubtedly  moving  in  a  rapid,  and  perhaps  invisible  cur- 
rent, not  far  above  us.  If  from  the  east  or  south,  it  betokens 
rain ;  if  from  the  western  quarter,  fair  weather. 

I  need  not  dwell  upon  the  characteristics  of  the  different  winds 
or  their  prognostic  indications.  Those  different  characteristics 
and  indications  have  been  directly  or  indirectly  before  us  in  every 
stage  of  our  inquiry,  and  should  have  become  very  familiar. 
And  they  must  again  come  under  review. 

The  next  element  in  prognostication  is  that  of  clearness  or 
cloudiness.  We  look  to  the  movements  of  the  barometer,  ther- 
mometer, and  winds,  as  well  as  to  some  other  elements  not  yet 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  265 

considered,  to  discover  the  coming  of  a  condition,  before  it  is  vis- 
ible, but  in  the  clouds  of  a  condition,  when  it  comes  in  sight,  we 
have  actual,  visible  evidence  of  its  approach  and  character.  The 
first  cloud  seen  is  ordinarily  the  cirrus,  which  overlies  the  condi- 
tion and  which  is  not  only  first  visible  because  the  most  elevated, 
but  because  it  extends  in  every  direction  farther  than  the  other 
strata  of  a  storm. 

All  the  forms  of  cirrus  are  seen  in  the  advance  condensation 
of  the  conditions,  except  what  might  properly  have  been  called 
the  cumulo-cirrus,  but  what  Howard  termed  the  cirro-cumulus, 
and  which  you  will  find  represented  on  page  34,  on  the  left  of 
the  diagram,  and  indicated  by  two  birds.  It  is  a  cirrus  or  incip- 
ient cirro-stratus,  broken  up  into  small,  distinct,  and  separate  heaps, 
resembling  fleeces  of  wool  laid  apart,  near,  but  not  in  contact.  It 
is  properly  called  the  fleecy-cloud,  arid  the  only  one  that  is,  and  it 
occurs  independently,  in  set  fair  weather  only. 

Hence  the  proverb : 

"  If  woolly  fleeces  strew  the  heavenly  way, 
Be  sure  no  rain  disturb  the  summer  day." 

But  the  early  cirrus  condensation  of  the  conditions  are  not 
always  visible.  There  may  be  enough  of  it  to  affect  the  bright- 
ness of  the  sun,  or  the  moon  and  stars,  or  to  occasion  halos  when 
it  is  not  sufficiently  dense  to  assume  the  appearance  of  clouds. 
It  is  a  turbid  or  misty  condensation  rather  than  visible  cloud. 
Sometimes  it  is  of  a  smoky  character,  like  that  which  attends 
midsummer  drouths,  or  the  shorter  dry  spells  of  autumn,  called 
Indian  Summer,  and  gives  to  the  sun  a  blood-red  appearance. 
But  ordinarily,  when  it  constitutes  the  advance  condensation  of  an 
approaching  condition,  it  changes  the  appearance  of  the  sky  from 
a  deep  azure  to  that  "  lighter  hue  "  which  Humboldt  describes  as 
preceding  the  arrival  of  the  central  belt  of  rains  from  the  south. 
It  was  found  by  Gay  Lussac,  and  has  been  by  other  aeronauts  to 
have  the  form  of  cloud  at  the  height  of  20  to  30,000  feet,  when 
not  visible  at  the  earth,  except  as  obscuring  mistiness. 

The  sun  and  moon  have  no  immediate  traceable  effect  in  pro- 


266  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ducing  particular  storms.     Some  valuable  traditionary  signs  have 
been  founded  upon  their  appearance,  but  only  as  affected  by  in- 
terposing condensation. 
Thus  Virgil : 

"  The  sun,  too,  rising,  and  at  that  still  hour, 
When  sinks  his  tranquil  beauty  in  the  main, 
Will  give  thee  tokens;  certain  tokens  all, 
Both  those  that  morning  brings,  and  balmy  eve. 

****** 
When  Sol  departs,  his  mighty  day-task  done, 
How  varied  hues  oft  wander  on  his  brow. 

****** 

If  the  ruddy  blaze 

Be  dimrn'd  with  spots,  then  all  will  wildly  rage 
With  squalls  and  driving  showers ;  on  that  fell  night 
None  shall  persuade  me  on  the  deep  to  urge 
My  perilous  course,  or  quit  the  sheltering  pier. 
But  if,  when  day  returns,  or  when  retires, 
Bright  is  the  orb,  then  fear  no  coming  rain. 

And  again: 

"  Mark,  with  attentive  eye,  the  rapid  sun — 
The  varying  moon  that  rolls  its  monthly  round ; 
So  shalt  thou  count,  not  vainly,  on  the  morn ; 
So  ihe  bland  aspect  of  the  tranquil  night 
Will  ne'er  beguile  thee  with  insidious  calm." 

And  again  of  the  moon : 

"  When  Luna  first  her  scatter' d  fires  recalls, 
If  with  blunt  horns  she  holds  the  dusky  air, 
Seamen  and  swains  predict  th'  abundant  shower." 

And  again  of  the  stars  : 

"Brightly  the  stars  shine  forth;  Cynthia  no  more 
Glimmers  obnoxious  to  her  brother's  rays; 

And  so  too  Dr.  Jenner : 

"  Last  night  the  sun  went  pale  to  bed, 
The  moon  in  halos  hid  her  head. 

Those  are  all  descriptive  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  that 
early,  misty,  interposing,  and  obscuring  condensation  in  the  upper 
story,  at  the  height  of  from  12,000  to  20,000  feet,  which  spread* 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  267 

out  in  advance  of  t'le  mo"e  dense  condensation  of  the  condition ; 
except  perhaps  the  allusion  of  Virgil  to  spots  upon  the  sun  near 
the  time  of  his  setting,  which  he  probably  meant  to  be  desciip- 
tive  of  small  patches  of  cirro-stratus  which  had  assumed  visible 
form.  Thin  cirrus  cloud,  whether  misty,  linear  or  fibrous,  pales 
the  light  of  the  sun,  especially  at  nightfall.  Occasionally  in  the 
course  of  the  day,  when  the  cirrus  is  dense,  various  coronses  and 
halos  described  in  our  text  books,  appear  in  it ;  but  the  coronre  and 
halos  of  the  sun  are  too  infrequent  to  be  of  importance  in  prognos- 
t  cation.  It  is  otlrirwi:e  with  the  halos  of  the  moon,  alluded  to 
in  the  last  couplet  quoted  fiom  Jenner.  They  aie  worthy  of  es- 
pecial notice. 

There  is  at  all  times  more  or  less  appearance  of  a  circle  round 
the  moon,  produced  by  the  mistiness  of  the  atmosphere,  but  dur- 
ing normal  fair  weather  the  circle  is  smnll  and  not  very  distinct, 
and  shades  off  gradually  into  the  azure.  But  when  the  circle  is 
large,  perfect,  and  the  rim  of  it  dense  and  well  defined,  it  is  a 
certain  sign  that  the  cirrus  in  which  it  is  formed  is  the  advance 
or  lateral  condensation  of  a  considerable  storm.  It  is  best  seen 
when  the  moon  is  vertical  or  nearly  so.  Occasionally  an  imper- 
fect circle  may  be  seen  in  an  isolated,  passing'  cirrus  cloud,  but 
that  is  of  no  importance  as  an  indication,  except  that  it  m  y  ex- 
cite suspicion  that  a  more  dense  and  uniform  layer  of  cirrus  of 
which  it  is  an  outlying,  advanced  portion,  may  be  approaching. 

In  relation  to  the  halo  around  the  moon  then,  look  first  to  the 
elevation  of  the  circle,  and  be  satisfied  that  it  is  in  the  cirrus  con- 
densation of  the  upper  story ;  second,  look  to  its  diameter,  which 
should  be  large  ;  third,  look  to  the  completeness  of  the  circle,  show- 
ing that  there  is  an  uniform  layer  of  condensation,  and  not  a  mere 
casual  cloud;  fourth,  look  to  the  density  of  the  outer  rim,  for  that 
determines  the  depth  of  the  condensation  ;  and  fifth,  to  its  steady 
continuance  and  gradual  increase,  for  they  are  evidence  that  it  is 
formed  in  an  extensive,  continuing,  and  deepening  stratum. 

Orher  sign*  have  been  regarded,  founded  professedly  upon  the 
appearance  of  the  sun,  but  in  reality  upon  the  character  and  ex- 


268  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

tent  of  its  obscuration  by  condensation,  or  the  visible  reflection  of 
his  rays  from  the  cirrus  or  cirro  stratus  clouds. 

Thus  mere  is  preserved  a  couplet  by  Darwin  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  sun  at  sunrise : 

"  In  fiery  red  the  sun  doth  rise, 
Then  wades  through  clouds  to  mount  the  skies." 

This  is  descriptive  of  an  appearance  not  unfrequently  seen. 
The  thin  eastern  edge  of  the  storm-clouds  of  the  condition  have 
passed  over  us  to  the  east  at  sunrise,  but  not  to  the  horizon — the 
sun,  as  it  rises,  shines  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  cirro-stratus, 
or  stratus,  and  his  red  rays  are  reflected  and  give  those  clouds  a 
bright  red  appearance.  But  the  body  of  the  stratus  clouds 
passes  on  to  the  east,  and  the  sun  rising  from  the  horizon  seems 
to  enter  and  wade  through  them,  until  they  are  sufficiently  dense 
to  hide  him  entirely  from  view.  The  counterpart  of  this  takes 
place  in  the  west  when  the  sun  is  about  to  set,  and  the  condition 
has  nearly  passed  by,  and  it  is  about  to  clear  off,  and  the  western 
edge  of  the  melting  stratus  or  cirro-stratus  is  above  the  horkon. 
The  sun  then  shines  under  them,  tinging  them  with  bright  and 
beautiful  colors.  It  is  thus  that  the  beautiful  sunsets  are  produced. 
And  as  they  are  evidence  that  the  body  of  the  condition  has  near- 
ly passed  by,  they  are  indications  of  approaching  fair  weather. 
These  appearances  are  seen  everywhere,  but  vary  somewhat  in 
different  climates  Dr.  Lynes  describes  such  a  clearing  off  sun- 
set in  the  southern  hemisphere  when  he  was  off  Cape  Corrientes. 
That  the  Jews  understood  this,  we  know,  for  on  this  subject  we 
have  an  allusion  to  the  weather,  by  our  Saviour  while  on  earth, 
which,  like  all  such  allusions  found  in  the  Bible,  is  of  remarkable 
philosophical  accuracy.  It  is  found  in  Matthew,  chapter  xvi, 
verses  2  and  3 :  "  He  answered  and  said  unto  them,  When  it  is 
evening  ye  say,  It  will  be  fair  weather,  for  the  sky  is  red.  And 
in  the  morning,  It  will  be  foul  weather  to-day,  for  the  sky  is  red 
and  lowering.  O,  ye  hypocrites,  ye  can  discern  the  face  of  the 
sky,"  etc. 

The  reader  will  recollect  that  the  Saviour  alluded  to  their  abil- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  269 

jty  to  read  the  signs  of  the  weather  correctly,  in  connection  with 
their  inability  to  read  the  signs  of  the  times. 

And  there  is  another  old  proverb,  founded  on  the  contrast  of 
the  appearance  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  morning  or  at  evening, 
the  philosophy  of  which  is  the  same.  It  is  as  follows : 

"  An  evening  red  and  a  morning  gray 
Are  sure  signs  of  a  fair  day ; 
Be  the  evening  gray  and  the  morning  red, 
Put  on  your  hat  or  you'll  wet  your  head." 

I  will  allude  in  this  connection  to  another  circumstance  which 
frequently  occurs,  and  has  always  attracted  popular  attention. 

When  the  sun  shines  clearly,  at  the  ea;»t  or  west,  through  a 
small  opening  in  the  clouds,  the  condensing  vapor  is  shown  by  the 
diverging  streaks  of  sunlight,  just  as  the  fine  particles  of  dust  are 
seen  in  a  dark  room,  when  a  few  rays  of  sunlight  are  admitted 
through  a  small  aperture.  This  phenomenon  is  often  observed, 
and  it  is  said  of  it — "  It  is  going  to  rain ;  the  sun  is  drawing 
water" 

Virgil  alludes  to  this  as  seen  in  the  east  in  the  morning,  thus: 

"  But  when  beneath  the  dawn  red-fingered  rays 
Through  the  dense  band  of  clouds  diverging  break, 
****** 
El  does  the  leaf  defend  the  mellowing  grape; 
Leaps  on  the  noisy  roof  the  plenteous  hail, 
Fearfully  crackling. 

In  describing  the  various  conditions  and  the  cloud  elements  of 
which  they  were  composed,  and  their  approach,  and  the  manner 
in  which  they  severally  become  visible,  I  have  said  all  that  it 
seems  important  to  say  in  respect  to  this  element  of  prognostica- 
tion. Every  one  has  impressions  more  or  less  clear  upon  the 
subject,  derived  from  experience,  even  though  they  have  paid  little 
attention  to  it.  There  are  few  who  do  not  sometimes  look  at  the 
face  of  the  sky  and  say  :  "  It  looks  like  snow,"  or  "  It  looks  like 
rain,"  or  "  like  clearing  off"  and  many  by  an  attentive  watching  of 
the  clouds,  are  enabled  to  form  a  very  accurate  opinion.  It  is 
not  a  difficult  matter  to  become  acquainted  with  these  appear- 


270  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ances,  and  there  is   a  pleasure    in  understanding  and  observing 
them  of  which  you  have  little  conception. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  all  the  conditions  approach  from  the 
westward,  I  will  give  you  a  brief  resume  of  the  appearances  to 
be  looked  for.  First,  as  to  the  season  of  the  year.  In  winter 
and  early  spring,  when  the  focal  path  is  at  the  south,  we  look 
at  the  southwest  for  the  first  appearance  of  the  clouds  of  the  con- 
dition. They  may  be  looked  for  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  but  if  they 
exist  at  all,  will  be  seen  most  distinctly  at  nightfall.  Later,  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer,  when  the  focal  path  has  moved  to  the 
north,  you  will  look  to  the  west,  and  in  summer  and  early  autumn, 
when  the  focal  path  is  north  of  us,  you  may  look  north  of  west, 
unless  indeed  you  reside  in  the  Atlantic  or  New  England  States, 
and  have  reason  to  look  for  an  approaching  hurricane  condition, 
which  is  coming  up  the  coast,  and  then  you  will  look  south-south- 
west. The  appearance  may  be  that  of  the  misty  cirrus  which 
we  have  described,  discoverable  by  the  aid  of  the  sun,  moon,  or 
stars  ;  or  the  cirrus  existing  in  visible,  thready  patches  or  wisps ; 
or  some  of  the  forms  of  cirro-stratus  ;  to  be  followed  by  the  cu- 
mulo-stratus  or  thunder  head,  or  the  rain-bearing  stratus,  accord- 
ing to  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  character  of  the  condition. 
Sometimes,  though  not  often,  the  scud  may  be  seen  floating  in  the 
southerly  or  easterly  wind,  before  other  cloud  condensation  is  vis- 
ible except  the  misty,  formless  cirrus.  Generally,  however,  the 
scud  are  not  seen  before  the  cirrus  assumes  form,  and  patches  of 
cirro-stratus  appear. 

But  I  must  not  omit  one  other  means  of  discovering  the  ap- 
proach of  a  belt  of  showers,  by  direct  observation. 

When  in  midsummer,  a  belt  of  showers  is  approaching  from 
the  N.W.,  and  the  cloud  condensation  does  not  show  itself  above 
the  horizon,  before  nightfall,  you  may  sometimes  discover  it  in  the 
evening  or  night,  as  it  is  illumined  by  the  flashes  of  lightning 
which  play  on  its  summits.  And  before  the  thunder  heads  have 
become  visible  above  the  horizon,  the  flashes  of  lightning  will  be 
seen  perhaps,  reflected  from  the  milky  stratum  of  cirrus,  which 
will  cover  that  part  of  the  sky,  and  seeming  to  come  from  the 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  271 

atmosphere  above  the  horizon.  Some  years  ago,  Lieut  Maury 
issued  circulars  to  the  farmers  of  the  western  states,  making  in- 
quiries relative  to  the  direction  and  other  circumstances  of  their 
rain-fall.  Among  the  answers,  it  was  stated  by  several  of  them, 
that  they  regarded  the  appearance  of  lightning  in  the  northwest 
in  the  evening,  as  a  certain  indication  of  coming  rain.  Of  the 
fact  of  a  coming  condition  you  may  be  assured,  by  the  sign,  but 
whether  or  not  it  will  precipitate  upon  your  locality  you  cannot 
be  sure. 

The  fifth  state  or  element  in  prognostication  is  that  of  humidity. 
I  had  not  been  accustomed  to  place  much  reliance  upon  this  ele- 
ment when  the  h  Philosophy  of  the  Weather,"  was  written,  but  I 
have  since  satisfied  myself  that  it  is  an  important  one. 

The  atmosphere  undoubtedly  contains  at  all  times  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  watery  vapor ;  whether  combined  or  uncom- 
bined  with  the  air  or  its  oxygen,  has  always  been,  and  is  still  a 
debatable  question.  Certain  it  is  that  at  times  there  exists  a  con- 
siderable quantity  which  is  uncombined  and  visible,  and  equally 

FIG.  39. 


272  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

certain  it  is  that  at  other  times,  when  evaporation  has  been  large, 
a  considerable  quantity  must  be  contained  in  the  atmosphere, 
which,  if  it  is  not  combined,  is  at  least  invisible,  and  undiscoverable 
by  any  ordinary  test.  More  attention  has  recently  been  given 
than  formerly,  to  the  subject  of  evaporation.  Mr.  Steinmetz  has 
invented  what  he  calls  a  vaporimeter,  to  measure  the  evaporation, 
which  is  preferable  to  any  other  instrument  I  have  seen. 

The  preceding,  Fig.  39,  is  a  cut  of  it.  It  consists  of  a  cylin- 
drical vessel,  a,  mounted  on  a  stand  with  a  hollow  glass  tube, 
d,  fixed  in  the  side,  and  inclined  so  near  the  horizontal  that  a  slight 
fall  of  the  water  in  the  vessel  e  can  be  measured  by  a  scale  on 
the  g'ass  tube.  It  is  easily  made  with  a  tin  cup  and  a  glass 
tube.  The  outside  end  of  the  latter  should  have  a  cover  fitted 
over  it  to  prevent  evaporation  there.  The  tube  is  supported  by 
the  arm  b.  The  diameter  of  the  vessel  should  be  5  inches,  and 
the  tube  long  enough  to  measure  a  fall  of  one  or  more  inches. 

Evaporation,  during  a  year,  exceeds  the  rain-fall  in  England  and 
doubtless  here.  It  is  exceedingly  rapid,  as  we  all  know,  in  our 
N.VV.  winds.  The  excess  of  evaporation  falls  in  dew. 

Two  very  important  facts  are  stated  by  Mr.  Steinmetz,  and 
corroborated  by  others.  The  first  is,  that  "  invariably  the  greater 
the  evaporation,  the  less  the  rain,  and  vice  versa,  in  every  month 
and  on  all  occasions."  The  second  is,  that  evaporation  decreases 
during  the  hot,  sultry  period  which  precedes  a  thunder  storm. 
The  importance  of  these  two  facts  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  when 
considered  in  connection  with  another  fact,  to  wit :  that  humidity, 
as  measured  by  the  hygrometer,  and  perceived  by  our  senses,  com- 
mences to  increase  with  the  first  influence  of  an  approaching  con- 
dition, and  continues  to  increase  till  the  arrival  of  the  rain.  If 
these  facts  are  f-o,  and  they  seem  to  be  established,  and  so  far  as 
I  know  are  unquestioned,  we  may  find  in  them  a  key  wherewith 
to  unlock  the  mysteries  of  condensation  and  precipitation  ;  but 
farther  than  this,  I  cannot  go  now  consistently  with  my  avowed 
purpose,  and  without  trenching  upon  theoretic  ground. 

It  seems  to  have  been  early  assumed,  and  to  be  still  taken  for 
granted  both  in  England  and  this  country,  that  the  question 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  273 

whether  or  not  rain  is  to  fall  upon  any  given  day,  depends  upon 
the  extent  to  which  the  surface  atmosphere  is  saturated  with 
watery  vapor,  and  Mr.  Steinmetz  believes  that  the  hygrometer  is 
the  most  reliable  instrument  with  which  to  prognosticate  the 
weather.  In  arriving  at  this  belief,  he  assumes  that  the  condition 
of  the  atmosphere  is  the  same  from  the  earth  upward,  and  ignores 
the  existence  of  that  rain  bearing  counter  or  upper  trade,  of  the 
state  of  which,  in  relation  to  vaporization,  we  can  know  little  or 
nothing,  except  from  the  character  of  the  condensation  which  floats 
in  it.  Substantially  all  our  rain,  and  most  of  that  which  falls  in 
England,  is  precipitated  from  that  upper  trade.  The  hygrometer 
cannot  tell  us  directly,  at  any  given  time,  whether  that  upper 
trade  is  saturated  or  not,  for  it  is  flowing  in  a  distinct  and  isolated 
stratum  far  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  question  there- 
fore, whether  the  surface  story  is  saturated,  may  have  a  bearing 
upon  the  question  whether  or  no  an  isolated  cumulo-stratus  will 
be  formed  out  of  the  ordinary  scud  of  that  surface  story,  and  drop 
rain  ;  but  it  can  have  no  direct  bearing  upon  the  question  of 
whether  a  condition,  involving  in  its  organization  all  the  stories, 
and  distributing  in  large  quantities  the  rain  which  it  has  brought 
from  the  tropics,  is  about  to  pass  over  the  observer.  I  believe  in 
the  hygrometer  therefore,  not  because  it  indicates  the  state  of 
saturation  merely,  or  indicates  a  fall  of  rain  consequent  on  the 
mere  saturation  of  the  surface  story,  but  because  it  indicates  the 
influence  of  an  organized  atmospheric  condition,  which  influence 
produces  a  humid  state  of  the  atmosphere.  With  these  sugges- 
tions borne  in  mind,  let  us  examine  the  hygrometer  and  its  indi- 
cations. 

Various  devices  have  been  adopted  at  different  periods  to  ascer- 
tain the  proportion  or  quantity  of  watery  vapor  in  the  atmosphere. 
The  earliest  were  all  founded  on  the  principle  that  bodies  expand 
or  swell  by  the  absorption  of  water  from  the  atmosphere.  Cer- 
tain substances  absorb  it  more  readily  than  others,  such  as  wood, 
hair,  whalebone,  &c.,  and  various  kinds  of  twisted  cord.  These 
were  arranged  so  as  to  move  indexes,  and  called  hygrometers. 
The  Dutch  u^ecl  catgut  for  this  purpose,  and  made  a  toy  called  a 
weather  house,  in  which,  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
13 


274 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


catgut  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  small 
figures  of  a  man  and  woman  are  made  to  swing  out  of  and  into 
the  house  alternately,  as  the  catgut  expands  or  contracts.  The 
toys  are  still  found  in  the  market.  A  twisted  beard  of  the  wild 
oat,  and  a  long  hair  deprived  of  its  grease,  were  formerly  used 
for  the  same  purpose.  Saussure's  hygrometer  was  made  of  the 
twisted  hair,  and  DeLuc's  of  a  piece  of  whalebone.  But  in 
later  years,  the  thermometer  has  been  used  by  applying  ether  or 
water  to  the  bulb,  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  cooling  required  to 
effect  condensation  of  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  glass. 
The  point  at  which  the  deposition  takes  place  is  called  the  dew- 
point.  The  following  cut  is  a  representation  of  the  wet  bulb 
hygrometer  which  is  now  more  generally  used  than  any  other,  hav- 
ing a  dry  thermometer  attached  for  comparison : 

FIG.  40. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  275 

One  of  the  bulbs  of  the  foregoing  instrument  is  covered  with 
a  piece  of  thin  muslin,  which  is  connected  with  the  water  in  the 
cup  by  loose  cotton  threads,  and  they  carry  the  water  to  the  mus- 
lin by  capillary  attraction,  and  keep  it  moist.  The  evaporation 
from  the  surface  of  the  muslin  depresses  the  temperature  of  that 
thermometer,  and  the  point  at  which  moisture  is  condensed  upon 
it  above  is  called  the  dew  point.  The  difference  between  the 
thermometers  is  the  complement  of  the  dew  point,  and  the  existing 
humidity  is  measured  by  that  difference.  The  greater  the  humid- 
ity the  less  that  difference. 

Mr.  Steinmetz,  in  "  Sunshine  and  Showers,"  expresses  the 
opinion  that  the  hygrometer  is  a  more  reliable  guide  to  the  future 
of  the  weather  than  the  barometer,  or  any  or  all  other  instruments 
combined.  This  may  be  true  in  England,  but  I  have  not  sup- 
posed it  to  be  true,  nor  do  I  think  it  can  bo  true  in  this  country. 
Let  me,  in  this  place,  briefly  contrast  the  climate  of  England  with 
that  of  this  country. 

The  area  of  England  is  comparatively  small,  and  she  is 
surrounded  by  a  warm  ocean.  Her  upper  or  counter  trade 
is  much  less  than  ours,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  which  she 
receives  in  a  year  is  about  half  that  which  falls  upon  our 
country  east  of  the  Mississippi.  According  to  the  statement  of 
Mr.  Steinmetz,  it  rains  there  more  or  less,  upon  nearly  twice 
the  number  of  days  in  the  year  that  it  does  here,  and  on  a 
large  proportion  of  the  days  the  amount  of  rain-fall  does  not  ex- 
ceed T^F  of  an  inch.  The  island  is  situated  so  far  north  that  her 
proper  rainy  season  does  not  commence  until  July,  and  the  prin- 
cipal proportion  of  her  annual  rain-fall  occurs  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  year,  as  is  usual  in  high  northern  latitudes.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  year,  considerable  storms  and  belts  of  showers  like 
those  which  are  common  here,  rarely  occur ;  and  they  are  not 
very  frequent  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year.  From  these  facts  it 
is  obvious  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  their  small  rain-fall  is 
derived  from  the  surface  atmosphere,  the  ordinary  S.W.,  W.  and 
N.W.  scud  of  their  feeble  conditions,  forming  over  the  ocean  to 
the  west,  in  a  nearly  saturated  atmosphere,  assuming  a  cumulo- 


276  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

stratus  form  as  they  pass  horizontally  over  the  island,  and  drop- 
ping dashes  of  rain.  We  have  something  like  that  in  this  country 
in  the  spring  and  fall  of  the  year,  when  the  N.W.  scud  become 
very  dense,  and  furnish  flurries  of  rain  or  snow,  vaiying  from  a 
few  moments  to  half  an  hour.  But  not  a  hundreth  part  of  our 
rain-fall  takes  place  in  that  manner,  and  nearly  all  of  it  is  derived 
from  extensive,  heavy  storms  of  continuous  rain,  or  from  wide 
belts  of  showers. 

As  so  large  a  proportion  of  their  rain-fall  is  derived  from  the 
surface  atmosphere,  and  in  such  dashes  and  brief  showers,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  to  the  west  of 
them,  it  is  very  possible  that  Mr.  Steinmetz  does  not  speak  too 
s:rongly  in  relation  to  the  use  of  the  hygrometer- — for  there  may 
be  an  intimate  connection  between  the  degree  of  saturation  of  the 
surface  atmosphere,  and  the  change  of  its  scud  into  cumulo-stratus 
and  nimbus.  But  as  a  different  state  of  things  exists  here,  and 
such  a  saturation  of  the  atmosphere  and  change  of  the  scud  rarely 
takes  place  here,  it  would  seem  to  follow  philosophically,  that  the 
reliance  to  be  placed  upon  the  hygrometer  must  be  proportionally 
less,  and  doubtless  it  is  so. 

Still  it  may  be  well  for  the  observer  to  note  the  changes  of 
humidity.  Doubtless  that  has  something  to  do  with  the  f.  e'ing 
of  oppressiveness  and  sultriness,  felt  in  advance  of  a  belt  of 
showers,  and  because  it  diminishes  evaporation  from  the  surface. 
But  this  excess  of  humidity  does  not  always  exist  in  advance  of 
storms,  and  the  principal  changes  of  feeling  experienced  by  men 
and  animals,  are  due,  as  we  shall  see,  to  electricity. 

There  is  another  peculiarity  in  the  climate  of  England,  and  of 
all  northern  Europe,  which  I  will  notice  in  passing,  although  it 
does  not  bear  precisely  upon  this  point.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
year,  before  their  volume  of  upper  trade  becomes  considerable, 
dry  northeast  winds  are  frequent.  Here,  our  northeast  winds 
generally  precede  storms,  but  we  have  something  of  the  same 
kind  of  wind,  under  two  circumstances  which  probably  exist  alike 
in  both  continents.  First,  we  frequently  have  in  the  spring  of 
the  year,  before  the  rainy  season  sets  in,  and  when  the  focal  path 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  277 

is  to  the  south  and  peculiarly  concentrated,  dry  N.E.  winds,  which 
are  parts  of  the  distant  but  contracted  conditions,  for  many  days 
in  succession.  Sometimes  the  lateral  outlying  condensation  of  the 
condition  spreads  up  over  us,  and  then  we  call  it  a  dry  north- 
easter. At  others,  that  condensation  does  not  reach  us.  Second, 
it  frequently  happens,  when  a  heavy  belt  of  showers  has  passed 
over  us,  followed  by  its  northerly  wind,  that  that  wind  will  com- 
mence blowing  in  the  morning  from  the  N.N.E.,  and  sometimes 
even  from  the  N.E.,  gradually  backing  into  the  N.W.  by  night- 
fall. When  that  occurs,  however,  it  will  be  observe  1  that  the 
southeasterly  progress  of  the  belt  is  slow.  And  the  tendency  to 
those  dry  N.E.  winds  increases  with  the  latitude.  There  is 
enough  in  this  occasional  and  peculiar  occurrence  of  dry  N.E. 
wind  to  give  to  Prof.  Dove's  theory  of  gyration  a  seeming  sup- 
port, but  the  other  facts  which  bear  upon  it  are  conclusive  of  its 
fallacy.  Those  dry  northeast  winds  occur  in  high  latitudes  only, 
and  north  of  the  then  position  of  the  focus  or  focal  path  of  the 
conditions. 

There  is  another  observable  evidence  of  the  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere,  indicative  of  an  approaching  condition,  especially  of 
a  belt  of  showers  in  summer,  and  a  southeaster  in  winter ;  such 
as  the  deposition  of  moisture  upon  tumblers  and  other  vessels 
containing  water,  and  upon  flagging  or  other  stones  connected  with 
the  ground.  I  remember  when  a  boy,  to  have  seen  old  people, 
in  order  to  ascertain  what  the  weather  would  be  next  day,  blow 
out  their  tallow  candles,  and  immediately  blow  them  again,  in 
order  to  relight  them.  If  the  flame  was  restored  easily,  they 
would  go  to  bed  with  the  assurance  of  fair  weather  the  next  day. 
If  the  candle  would  not  relight,  they  expected  foul  weather.  So, 
I  have  seen  them  sit  over  the  remaining  coals  of  a  large  hickory 
fire  and  listen  to  the  crackling  among  the  coals,  and  in  the  ashes, 
to  determine  by  its  intensity  what  the  weather  would  be.  Virgil 
alludes  to  a  somewhat  similar  sign  regarded  by  the  Romans,  as 
follows : 

"  Maidens  that  nightly  toil  the  tangled  fleece, 
Divine  the  coming  tempest ;  In  the  lamp 
Crackles  the  oil,  the  gathering  wick  grows  dim." 


278  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

All  these  depend  upon  humidity. 

And  so  do  those  signs  in  the  collection  of  Dr.  Jenner  which 
relate  to  the  falling  of  the  soot,  which  is  loosened  by  moisture, 
and  the  dampness  of  the  walls  and  odor  of  the  ditches.  Humid- 
ity prevents  the  diffusion  of  odors  and  concentrates  them. 

The  cracking  of  the  chairs  and  tables  before  a  rain  is  a  mistake. 
They  do  not  crack  then,  and  do  in  very  dry  frosty  weather. 

The  next  element  is  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  respect  to 
rain,  hail,  and  snow.  In  relation  to  this  element,  there  is  little  to 
be  said,  bearing  upon  prognostication.  All  the  rales  which  we 
have  been  considering,  or  are  yet  to  consider,  have  regard  to  the 
probability  of  the  precipitation  of  one  of  the  three  as  a  result. 
There  are  interesting  considerations  in  relation  to  the  formation 
and  occurrence  of  each,  which  have  no  direct  connection  with  the 
subject  of  prognostication,  and  with  which  all  are  more  or  less 
familiar. 

There  is  one  circumstance,  which  occasionally  occurs  before  the 
arrival  of  the  rain  cloud,  at  the  place  of  observation,  which  may 
properly  be  considered  in, this  connection.  I  allude  to  the  occur- 
rence of  a  rainbow  at  the  west,  in  the  morning. 

Jenner  says : 

"  The  boding  shepherd  heaves  a  sigh, 
For  see,  a  rainboio  spans  the  sky." 

An  old  almanac  had  the  following  verse  : 

"  A  rainbow  in  the  morning 
Is  the  shepherd's  warning; 
A  rainbow  at  night 
Is  the  shepherd's  delight." 

So  the  proverb  was  originally  made  ;  but  as  our  ancestors  were 
not  shepherds,  and  had  a  horror  of  ocean  storms,  it  was  commonly 
quoted,  in  this  country,  in  the  following  form : 

"  A  rainbow  in  the  morning, 
The  sailors  take  warning ; 
A  rainbow  at  night 
Is  the  sailor's  delight." 

Rainbows  are  not  reflected  from  clouds,  but  falling  rain,  and  a 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTKM.  279 

morning  rainbow  at  the  west  is,  of  course,  evidence  that  it  is 
actually  raining  there,  and  will,  in  all  probability,  pass  over  us. 
'•  Thunder  in  the  morning,  rain  before  night,"  is  a  common  saying, 
and  a  true  one.  There  is  a  belt  of  showers,  or  showery  period 
approaching,  of  unusual  intensity — for  thunder  showers  in  the 
morning  are  rare.  The  afternoon  is  their  most  common  period, 
and  they  are  very  apt  to  appear  then,  when  the  morning  is 
threatening. 

It  is  always  an  interesting  question,  and  sometimes  a  difficult 
one,  when  we  are  satisfied  that  a  stormy  condition  is  approaching, 
to  determine  whether  it  will  precipitate  rain  or  snow.  Rain  is 
the  rule,  except  in  high  latitudes,  and  snow  the  exception,  and 
very  much  of  probability  will  depend  upon  latitude — the  near- 
ness to  midwinter — and  the  character  of  the  winter.  Something 
too  of  reasonable  certainty  may  be  inferred  from  the  appearance 
af  the  clouds  as  the  condition  approaches.  Practical  men,  who 
a!  e  accustomed  to  regard  the  face  of  the  sky,  arrive  at  very  cor- 
rect conclusions,  in  most  cases.  It  is  not  as  easy  to  describe 
those  appearances,  as  it  is  to  understand  them,  when  once  familiar 
with  them.  I  can  give  you  a  few  facts  which  will  aid  you  in 
observing  for  yourself  and  becoming  thus  familiar. 

In  the  first  place,  the  advance  cirrus  condensation  is  generally 
of  the  linear  kind,  existing  in  long  threads  or  bars  extending  from 
southwest  to  northeast,  and  not  in  wi^ps  or  patches  as  in  the  sum- 
mer season.  In  the  second  place,  the  layer  of  stratus  from  which 
the  snow  is  to  fall,  is  smooth  and  uniform,  and  of  a  lightish  hue. 
In  the  third  place,  there  is  at  the  approach  and  in  the  commence- 
ment of  the  storm,  usually  very  little  wind,  and  that  at  first  south- 
west, and  afterwards  northeast.  In  the  fourth  place,  the  barom- 
eter usually  rises  higher  before  a  snow  storm,  and  falls  with  less 
rapidity.  As  contrasted  with  these,  the  rain  storm  in  winter  is 
usually  discoverable  in  the  west  or  northwest.  The  clouds  are 
more  irregular,  and  of  a  darker  color,  and  the  precedent  wind  is 
from  the  southward,  and  there  is  more  of  it.  In  connection  with 
these,  the  indications  derived  from  the  thermometer  are  very 
useful,  but  of  them  I  have  written  at  length,  under  the  head  of 


280  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

temperature,  in  this  chapter,  and  need  not  repeat  what  is  there 
said. 

The  seventh  and  last  element,  is  the  electric  state  of  the  at- 
mosphere. Our  knowledge  of  electricity  is  not  yet  s;ich  as  to 
furnish  alone  any  direct  evidence  of  the  approach  of  a  condition, 
but  there  are  many  signs  which  are  founded  on  the  indirect  effect 
of  electricity,  and  are  relied  upon,  even  in  less  intense  climates 
than  ours.  A  collection  of  nearly  all  the  received  and  credited 
English  signs  was  made  by  Dr.  Jenner,  according  to  Howard — 
or  as  Hone  says  in  his  "  Everyday  Book,"  by  Darwin — and  ar- 
ranged in  rhymes.  Some  of  them,  I  have  already  quoted.  Near- 
ly all  of  them  which  are  of  any  merit,  depend  upon  electricity. 
The  following  is  the  collection  : 

"  Dr.  Jenner's  signs  of  rain — an  excuse  for  not  accepting  the  invitation  of  a 
friend  to  make  a  country  excursion. 

"  The  hollow  winds  begin  to  blow, 
The  clouds  look  black,  the  glass  is  low, 
The  s.oot  falls  down,  the  spaniels  sleep, 
And  spiders  from  their  cobwebs  creep. 
Last  night  the  sun  went  pale  to  bed, 
The  moon  in  halos  hid  her  head, 
The  boding  shepherd  heaves  a  sigh, 
For  see !  a  rainbow  spans  the  sky. 
The  walls  are  damp,  the  ditches  smell; 
Closed  is  the  pink-eyed  pimpernel. 
Hark!  how  the  chairs  and  tables  crack; 
Old  Betty's  joints  are  on  the  rack, 
Loud  quack  the  ducks,  the  peacocks  cry; 
The  distant  hills  are  looking  nigh. 
How  restless  are  the  snorting  swine ! — 
The  busy  flies  disturb  the  kine. 
Low  o'er  the  grass  the  swallow  wings; 
The  cricket,  too,  how  loud  it  sings ! 
Puss,  on  the  hearth,  with  velvet  paws, 
Sits  smoothing  o'er  her  whisker'd  jaws. 
Through  the  clear  stream  the  fishes  rise 
And  nimbly  catch  the  incautious  flies ; 
The  sheep  were  seen,  at  early  light, 
Cropping  the  meads  with  eager  bite. 
Though  June,  the  air  is  cold  and  chill; 
The  mellow  blackbird's  voice  is  still; 
The  glow-worms,  numerous  and  bright, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  281 

Illumed  the  dewy  dell  last  night: 

At  dusk  the  squalid  toad  was  seen, 

Hopping,  crawling,  o'er  the  green. 

The  frog  has  lost  his  yellow  vest, 

And  in  a  dingy  suit  is  dress'd. 

The  leech,  disturbed,  is  newly  risen 

Quite  to  the  summit  of  his  prison. 

The  whirling  wind  the  dust  obeys 

And  in  the  rapid  eddy  plays. 

My  dog,  so  altered  in  his  taste, 

Quits  mutton  bones,  on  grass  to  feast; 

And  see  yon  rooks,  how  odd  their  flight ! 

They  imitate  the  gliding  kite ; 

Or  seem  precipitate  to  fall, 

As  if  they  felt  the  piercing  ball. 

'Twill  surely  rain;  I  see,  with  sorrow, 

Our  jaunt  must  be  put  off  to-morrow." 

Most  of  the  foregoing  signs  relate  to  animals,  and  are  undoubt- 
edly electrical,  for  the  animal  creation  cannot  be  supposed  to  form 
any  conception  of  an  approaching  storm  except  from  their  feel- 
ing.-*. The  same  is  true  in  relation  to  the  signs  founded  on  the 
feelings  of  mankind. 

The  line 

"  Old  Betty's  joints  are  on  the  rack," 

and  the  lines  which  Hone  added — 

"  Her  corns  with  shooting  pains  torment  her — 
And  to  her  bed  untimely  send  her," 

conform  to  common  experience.  It  is  well  understood  that  rheu- 
matic joints,  broken  bones,  inflamed  corns,  and  parts  where 
wounds  once  existed,  and  many  other  ailments,  feel  the  influence 
of  an  approaching  storm  many  hours  before  it  reaches  us.  Many 
persons  are  subject  to  severe  headache,  which  comes  on  before 
the  approach  of  a  belt  of  thunder  showers,  and  ceases  when  it  is 
past.  Howe  added  another  couplet  which  deserves  notice. 

"  The  smoke  from  chimneys  right  ascends, 
Then  spreading  back  to  earth  it  bends." 

The  descent  of  the  smoke  is  attributed  to  the  lightness  of  the 
atmosphere,  but  that  is  a  mistake.  I  have  observed  it  very  care- 


282  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

fully,  and  found  it  to  descend  without  regard  to  the  elevation  of 
the  barometer.  I  know  of  no  cause  to  which  it  can  be  philosophi- 
cally attributed  except  that  it  is  positively  electrified,  and  attracted 
by  the  negatively  electrified  earth. 

The  surface  atmosphere,  near  the  earth,  seems  to  be  always 
affected  electrically  by  the  influence  of  approaching  conditions, 
and  thus  to  affect  men  and  animals,  as  stated  ;  but  it  is  sometimes 
peculiarly  so,  especially  by  the  approach  of  belts  of  showers. 
Such  a  state  is  commonly  described  as  "  muggy,"  "  sultry,"  "  hot," 
"  close,"  &c.  The  air  of  such  a  state  is  not  necessarily  hot,  it  is 
undoubtedly  humid,  but  humidity,  although  it  aids  in  producing 
it,  will  not  alone  account  for  it.  Nearly  all  the  descriptions  of 
the  Cincinnati  hurricane  speak  of  the  air  as  being  "  very  hot,"  and 
some  of  them  as  "very  close"  but  the  registers  of  temperature 
which  I  have  given,  show  that  the  thermometer  was  not  above 
70°,  which  is  not  hot.  No  degree  of  humidity,  with  the  ther- 
mometer at  70°,  or  at  65°, — its  common  spring  and  autumn  range 
in  northeasters — could  revive  the  rheumatism  in  Aunt  Betty's 
joints,  or  the  pain  in  her  corns.  The  renewal  of  the  pain  once 
felt  in  broken  bones,  or  the  part  where  wounds  once  existed,  is 
felt  in  the  dry,  warm  air  of  the  house,  and  in  bed. 

Men  and  animals  are  not  alone  sensible  to  this  precedent  storm 
influence.  Everything  which  has  life  feels  it,  and  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  exhibits  the  feeling.  From  an  early  period,  certain 
plants  have  been  observed  to  exhibit  it  in  a  marked  manner. 
Tenner  alludes  to  this,  in  the  last  line  of  the  following  couplet. 

"  The  walls  are  damp,  the  ditches  smell, 
Closed  is  the  pink-eyed  pimpernel." 

And  Mr.  Steinmetz  speaks  of  this  in  the  following  manner : 
"  There  are  five   plants  which  have  been  observed  from  time 
immemorial  for  the  signs  of  the  weather — the  dandelion,  the  tre- 
foil, the  pimpernel,  chickweed,  and  the  Siberian  sowthistle. 

"  The  dandelion  is  a  very  common  plant,  which  flowers  early, 
and  remains  in  bloom  more  or  less  all  the  year.  The  general 
flowering,  however,  takes  place  about  the  8th  of  April,  and  for 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  283 

a  month  it  bespangles  the  fields,  mixing  agreeably  with  the 
daisy.  The  down  of  the  dandelion  closes  for  bad  weather,  but 
expands  for  the  return  of  sunshine  ;  the  down  of  other  plants 
may  be  observed  for  the  same  indications. 

"  The  trefoil,  according  to  the  great  Lord  Bacon,  grows  more 
upright,  with  a  swelling  stalk,  against  rainy  weather  ;  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  stalks  of  most  other  plants,  though  not 
so  conspicuously  as  in  the  trefoil.  Before  showers  the  trefoil 
contracts  its  leaves,  as  does  the  convolvulus  and  many  other 
plants. 

"  The  pimpernel  is  the  Anagallis  arvensis  of  LinnaBus,  and  is 
found  in  our  stubble  fields,  and  in  gardens,  flowering  in  June, 
and  continuing  all  the  summer.  When  this  plant  is  seen  in  the 
morning,  with  its  little  red  flowers  widely  extended,  we  may  gen- 
erally expect  a  fine  day ;  on  the  contrary,  when  the  petals  are 
closed,  rain  will  soon  follow. 

'•  This  is  the  plant  which  Lord  Bacon  seems  to  refer  to  under 
the  name  of  Windcope,  and  which  has  also  been  styled  the  poor 
man's  weather-glass. 

"  Chickweed  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  weather-guide.  When 
the  flower  expands  freely,  no  rain  will  fall  for  many  hours ;  if  it 
so  continue  open,  no  rain  for  a  long  time  need  be  feared.  In 
showery  days  the  flower  appears  half  concealed,  and  this  state 
may  be  regarded  as  indicative  of  showery  weather ;  when  it  is 
entirely  shut  we  may  expect  a  rainy  day. 

"  If  the  flowers  of  the  Siberian  sowthistle  remain  open  all 
night,  we  may  expect  rain  next  day. 

"  We  have  no  doubt  that  if  the  subject  were  systematically 
studied  in  daily  observation,  almost  every  plant  would  be  found 
to  indicate  more  or  less  conspicuously,  all  coming  changes  of  the 
weather,  and  so  it  is  obvious  that  a  new  charm  or  interest  might 
be  given  to  our  gardens,  aa  examination  or  passing  inspection  of 
which,  in  the  morning,  "  before  leaving  for  town,"  would  lead  us 
to  infer  whether  "  we  had  better  take  an  umbrella  or  not  " — a 
matter  of  frequent  doubt  in  our  changeable  climate." 

From  this  review  of  the   elements  of  prognostication,  and  of 


284  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

the  principal  traditionary  signs  which  have  come  to  us  fro  n  our 
ancestors,  I  think  the  -reader  will  be  satisfied  that  our  propositions 
are  proved,  and  that  all  those  signs  which  are  philosophically  true, 
are  founded  on  one  or  the  other  of  the  seven  states  or  elements 
which  we  have  considered,  and  with  which  I  have  classed  them. 
f  There  are  a  variety  of  other  traditionary  signs,  which  have  no 
foundation  whatever,  in  philosophy  or  truth.  Thus,  it  is  common 
to  look  for  equinoctial  storms  at  the  equinoxes,  or  when,  as  the 
sailors  say,  the  sun  crosses  the  line.  This  is  an  absurdity. 
Storms  of  like  character  are  occurring  every  day  in  the  year,  in 
different  and  numerous  portions  of  the  hemisphere.  In  some 
portions  of  the  hemisphere,  storms  never  occur.  In  neither  re- 
spect is  there  any  difference  on  that  day.  A  storm  that  then  visits 
any  particular  locality,  especially  if  a  high  latitude,  may  have 
originated,  and  probably  did  originate,  several  days  before.  Heavy 
storms  in  the  eastern  states  of  this  country,  are  as  common  in 
all  the  winter  and  spring  months,  as  in  March,  and  occur  as  often 
on  other  days  in  March,  as  the  20th.  The  same  is  true  of  Sep- 
tember. A  most  violent  and  destructive  hurricane  (which  I  have 
traced,)  occurred  during  this  month,  (September,  1869,)  which 
originated  in  the  central  belt  on  the  5th  and  6th,  and  passed  up 
north  of  the  West  Indies  and  off  the  coast,  mainly  between  70° 
and  75°  of  longitude,  and  crossed  southeastern  INew  England  on 
the  8th.  Another  severe  one  passed  east  of  Bermuda  on  the  1 6th, 
which  dismasted  may  vessels.  Another  originated  in  that  belt,  on 
the  30th,  which  came  up  the  coast  and  extended  inland,  meeting 
another  from  the  west,  and  the  two  deluged  the  coast  states  on  the 
3d  and  4th  of  October.  And  a  condition  from  the  west  which 
passed  between  the  16th  and  20th,  was  of  an  ordinary  character. 
Which  was  the  equinoctial  ? 

Moreover,  the  reader  who  appreciates  the  developments  I  have 
made,  and  remembers  that  the  equatoj*  is  a  mere  imaginary  line, 
will  discard  the  palpable  though  current  fallacy  respecting  equi- 
noctial storms. 

There  are  numbers  of  other  signs,  more  or  less  regarded,  which 
have  no  foundation  in  philosophy  or  fact.  Of  this  character  are 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  285 

all  almanac  days  or  particular  days  of  the  month,  or  week,  or 
other  period,  the  weather  of  which  is  assumed  to  be  an  indication 
of  what  the  weather  will  be  at  some  future  time.  Without  enu- 
merating or  alluding  to  the  other  popular  signs,  let  me  again 
assure  the  reader  that  all  of  them,  without  exception,  are  fallacies, 

unless  CONNECTED  WITH,  OT  FOUNDED  ON,  ONE  OF  THE  SEVEN 
STATES  DESCRIBED. 

I  think  that  now  my  reader  may  form  an  accurate  conception  of 
the  extent  to  which,  as  an  isolated  observer,  he  may  prognosticate 
the  weather,  and  the  only  means  by  which  it  can  be  done,  viz : 
by  a  careful  and  intelligent  observation  of  the  changes  of  state, 
induced  by  the  approach,  presence,  or  passing  by  of  the  various 
conditions. 

But  it  may  be  well  to  look  a  little  more  closely  for  a  brief 
space,  at  some  material  points — notwithstanding  it  may  seem  like 
repetition — and  at  some  things  to  which  allusion  has  not  been  made. 

Assuming  first  that  the  normal  condition  of  fair  weather  exists, 
several  questions  arise.  The  first  and  most  natural  question  is 
the  one  we  have  considered,  viz :  when  will  the  next  condition 
come,  and  when  shall  we  perceive  its  influence  and  its  changes 
of  state  ?  There  is,  as  I  have  said,  no  reliable  regularity  of  in- 
terval. The  conditions,  whether  originating  in  the  tropical  center 
of  the  system,  and  coming  thence  to  us,  or  whether  originating 
over  our  continent,  in  the  upper  trade  which  is  sent  to  us  from 
that  center,  are  organized  by  some  force  whose  character  and 
manner  of  operation  are  not  fully  understood.  When  we  hear  of 
an  existing  and  distant  storm,  we  can  tell  within  a  day,  when — 
if  it  originated  east  of  the  Windward  Islands,  or  over  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  Texas, — it  will  pass  over 
any  particular  point  in  its  path,  for  we  know  substantially,  what 
its  movement  per  hour,  according  to  its  intensity,  will  be,  and 
what  its  course  will  be  at  that  season  of  the  year.  Thus  much 
we  shall  hereafter  certainly  know,  or  the  next  generation  will 
know,  when  the  telegraph  is  intelligently  used  to  disclose  it.  But 
until  die  character  and  manner  of  operation  are  fully  understood, 
we  cannot  tell  in  advance,  when  or  where  a  condition  will  be  or- 


286  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ganized.  The  time  may  come  when  even  that  degree  of  knowledge 
on  the  subject,  will  be  attained,  but  I  fear  it  will  not  be  until  our 
present  generation  of  closet-theorists  are  gone,  and  their  theories 
discarded.  Just  now  their  control  seems  absolute.  But  I  have 
faith  to  believe  that  by  the  next  generation,  if  not  by  the  present, 
the  West  India  Islands  will  all  be  connected  by  wire,  and  that 
important  representative  points  of  observation  in  this  country,  will 
be  connected  in  like  manner — that  these  wires  will  be  conducted 
to  some  convenient  place,  where  a  meteorological  department  or 
bureau  will  be  organized,  and  the  whole  be  under  the  control  of 
capable,  practical  men,  and  the  organization  and  progress  of  the 
conditions  be  reported  to  the  country  from  hour  to  hour.  The 
advantage  of  such  a  system  to  all  our  industries,  and  its  assis- 
tance in  the  advancement  of  knowledge,  will  be  beyond  present 
comprehension. 

Such  organizations  have  recently  been  formed  in  England  and 
Frair-e,  but  an  ocean,  without  stations  for  observers,  lies  to  the 
west  of  them,  and  they  have  scarcely  any  opportunity  to  discover 
and  report  in  advance.  It  is  otherwise  with  us. 

Before  such  a  system  of  observation  can  be  established  in  this 
country,  however,  the  practical  mind  of  the  country,  and  especially 
its  Journalists  and  National  Legislators,  must  come  to  understand 
the  subject,  and  appreciate  the  importance  and  feasibility  of  such 
a  telegraph  system,  and  its  certain,  useful  result,  if  placed  under 
the  control  of  capable,  practical  observers.  The  men  to  organ- 
ize and  successfully  conduct  such  a  system  are  not  now  to  be 
found  among  the  professed  Meteorologists  of  the  country.  It  re- 
quires a  practical  knowledge  of  the  atmospheric  system  they  do 
not  possess  and  do  not  seem  willing  to  acquire. 

As  matters  now  stand,  therefore,  reader,  you  must  be  content 
to  be  an  isolated  observer,  and  look  to  the  changes  of  state  I 
have  described,  for  evidence  of  the  coming  condition.  You  can- 
not tell  with  certainty,  before  its  influence  is  felt  around  you,  or  it 
is  seen,  when  it  will  appear. 

Something  of  probability  there  is,  which  may  be  regarded. 
That  probability  depends  upon  the  location  of  the  observer,  and 
the  season  and  character  of  the  year. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  287 

What  then  is  your  location  with  reference  to  the  focal  path  of 
the  conditions  ?  Is  it  anywhere  east  of  the  Alleghanies,  in  East- 
ern New  York,  or  New  England  ?  Then  the  probability  is  that 
in  the  months  of  January,  February,  and  March,  the  conditions 
will  come  as  often  as  once  a  week  in  normal  years,  oftener  in 
some  years,  and  less  often  in  others,  particularly  in  such  winters 
as  those  described  by  President  D wight.  If  your  position  is  in 
any  of  the  northwestern  states,  the  conditions  will  come  less  often 
in  normal  years,  and  this  it  may  be  well  to  understand,  although 
it  may  be  repetition.  Look  back  now  to  the  rain  chart  for  the 
winter  season,  and  see  where  the  rain-fall  is  for  those  months.  It 
is  trifling  in  the  northwestern  states,  it  is  heavy  in  the  Gulf  States 
where  the  conditions  first  strike  the  continent,  or  commence.  It 
is  considerable  along  the  Alleghanies  to  New  England.  The  con- 
ditions generally  follow  up  those  mountain  ranges  in  the  winter 
season,  and  their  direction  is  more  northerly  than  it  would  be  if 
the  country  was  level.  The  conditions  would  then  curve  more  to 
the  northeast,  and  would  leave  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  South- 
eastern New  York,  and  New  England,  with  much  less  precipitation 
than  they  now  receive.  In  proof  of  this,  observe  how  upon  the 
chart  the  line  of  seven  inches  of  rain-fall  for  the  winter  curves 
abruptly  to  the  east  below  the  great  lakes  and  where  the  Alleghany 
ranges  lose  their  high  elevation.  Observe  again,  in  the  tables,  how, 
when  the  focal  path  is  carried  to  the  west  and  north  in  April,  and 
curves  over  the  more  level  land  west  of  the  Mississippi,  it  takes 
its  normal,  northeast  direction,  and  crosses  the  mountains  and  ex- 
tends to  the  coast  in  the  same  direction.  Then  the  conditions 
are  less  frequent  and  less  intense  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  and  New  England.  It  is  then  to  this  cause  that  the 
spring  drouths  are  due  in  those  states.  I  have  before  alluded  to 
the  fact  that  the  focal  path  appeared  to  extend  to  the  north  and 
west  in  the  spring,  over  the  central  states  much  faster  than  upon 
the  states  east  of  the  mountains.  And  now  you  have  the  prom- 
ised explanation  of  it. 

In  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  states  northeastward 
of  it,  the  conditions  may  continue  to  recur  during  January,  Feb- 


288  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ruary,  and  early  March,  as  frequently  as  in  autumn,  but  after  that, 
for  weeks  they  will  be  less  frequent  and  less  intense.  It  is  rare 
that  there  is  not  a  dry  time  for  oat-seeding  the  latter  part  of 
March  and  the  first  part  of  April,  and  the  gentleness  of  the  rains 
in  that  section  at  that  season  is  proverbial.  In  the  western  and 
northwestern  states,  the  conditions  are  infrequent  and  weak  in 
the  winter  months,  gradually  increasing  in  frequency  and  inten- 
sity as  the  focal  path  extends  up  over  them.  The  middle  states 
become  very  wet  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  wherever  the  centre 
of  the  focal  path  happens  to  be,  and  where  it  rains  almost  every 
day,  and  it  is  much  more  common  for  seed  to  rot  in  the  ground 
there,  particularly  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio,  than  in  the  east- 
ern and  northwestern  states. 

Of  course  wherever  the  path  is  focal,  the  conditions  are  more 
frequent.  This  is  true  of  the  spring  when  the  path  is  ascending 
west  and  north.  Heavy  freshets  are  common  under  it,  and  rare 
above  and  below  it. 

The  path  is  not  so  concentrated  in  its  descent  in  autumn  as  dur- 
ing its  ascent  in  spring.  The  conditions  therefore  are  not  as  fre- 
quent, or  so  concentrated  on  the  path  and  focal  in  character  in  the 
autumn,  as  they  are  in  the  spring,  and  for  that  reason,  autumn 
is  much  the  most  pleasant  season  of  the  two. 

Then  occur  the  dry,  mild,  equable  "  spells,"  known  as  the  Indian 
Summer,  with  which  all  are  familiar.  But  they  alternate  with 
very  long  and  heavy  storms.  The  New  England  Indians  in- 
formed the  first  settlers  that  "  winter  no  come  till  swamps  full" 
and  it  is  generally  so.  Winter  sets  in  permanently,  and  some- 
times very  abruptly,  when  the  focal  path  has  passed  south  ;  and 
the  swamps  are  filled  by  those  heavy  rain-falls  while  it  is  grad- 
ually descending. 

In  summer  where  the  focal  path  has  ascended  to  the  north,  the 
conditions  are  much  less  frequent  than  in  spring,  and  if  it  were 
not  for  the  provision  that  very  heavy  rains  should  fall  in  a  short 
time  from  the  summer  belts  of  showers,  there  would  be  drouth 
south  of  the  focal  path  every  year.  As  it  is,  there  is  generally  a 
tendency  to  it,  especially  in  the  early  years  of  the  decade. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  289 

Thus  much  in  relation  to  the  frequency  of  the  conditions.  We 
cannot  tell  without  the  telegraph,  when  they  will  come,  until  we 
see  them,  or  their  influence  is  seen  or  felt  in  changes  of  state. 
The  telegraph  would  not  be  of  much  assistance  without  trained 
operators,  and  we  cannot  have  those  trained  operators  under  the 
present  scientist  method  of  training  young  men,  and  stuffing 
them  with  the  cluster  of  fallacies  which  constitute  the  Halley 
system.  The  telegraph  can  only  communicate  advantageously 
the  observations  of  intelligent  men,  each  having  his  attention 
directed  to  the  same  and  all  the  important  points,  and  intelligently 
and  reliably  communicated  to  the  qualified  head  of  a  Bureau. 
To  that  end  practical  training  is  necessary.  The^e  truths  will 
ultimately  be  realized,  and  the  arrival  at  port  of  a  steamer  which 
has  been  spoken  and  telegraphed,  will  not  be  calculated  with  so 
much  certainty  as  the  arrival  of  a  storm,  observed  days  before  on 
its  distant  path,  and  all  its  characteristics  reported  by  telegraph. 

The  next  question  is,  what  will  be  the  character  of  the  condi- 
tion? Here  we  have  not  only  probability  but  some  elements  of 
certainty.  Thus,  in  midwinter,  in  all  the  northeastern  states,  the 
probability  is  that  the  condition  will  be  a  northeaster,  and  accom- 
panied with  more  or  less  snow,  and  in  most  cases  the  N.E.  wind  will 
be  felt  before  the  storm  arrives.  In  the  northwestern  states  in 
winter,  the  conditions  are  usually  snow  storms.  Nearer  to  the 
focal  path,  there  is  snow  on  the  north  side  of  them,  and  rain  on 
the  south.  At  the  centre  of  the  focal  path  there  may  be  either. 
South  of  the  center  it  usually  rains.  The  observer  therefore  can 
infer  the  probability  from  his  position,  and  the  observed  position 
of  the  approaching  condensation.  There  is  a  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  that  condensation  also,  which  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
scribe with  accuracy ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  lighter  and  more 
smooth  and  uniform  the  overcasting  stratus  cloud,  the  greater  the 
probability  of  snow — the  darker  and  more  irregular,  the  greater 
the  probability  of  rain. 

Occasionally  there  is  an  irruption  of  the  upper  trade  in  large 
volume,  extending  or  passing  north  of  the  focal  path,  constituting 
a  southeaster,  with  warm  winds  upon  its  tropical  side,  blowing 


290  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

under  and  across  if,  breaking  up  for  a  time  the  uniform  cold  of 
winter  and  constituting  what  is  cal'ed  a  "  thaw,"  followed  soon  by 
the  cold  N.W.  wind  and  winter  weather.  In  open  winters  these 
conditions  are  sometimes  frequent.  In  normal  winters,  there  are 
usually  one  or  two  of  them  in  January,  and  the  same  number  in 
February.  In  some  severe  winters  which  I  have  known,  and 
others  which  are  recorded,  they  did  not  occur  at  all. 

Under  the  focal  path,  the  conditions  will  be  irregular.  East 
of  the  mountains  and  in  Virginia,  and  as  low  down  as  Hatteras, 
probably  the  wind  will  be  northeast.  West  of  the  mountains  it 
will  probably  be  southwest,  and  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
probably  from  some  southerly  point  inland,  and  some  easterly 
point  on  the  coast,  according  to  the  character  of  the  season,  and 
the  location  of  the  year  in  the  decade. 

The  next  question  is,  what  will  be  the  character  of  the  ap- 
proaching condition  with  respect  to  intensity  ?  I  have  said  that 
about  one-fifth  were  so  weak  that  they  did  not  precipitate  at  all ; 
and  there  are  as  many  degrees  of  intensity  up  to  the  deluging 
storm  or  shower  which  produces  a  freshet. 

Something  may  be  learned  from  the  barometer  and  the  extent 
of  its  fall, — something  from  temperature  when  it  rises  rapidly 
and  high  before  a  belt  of  showers — something  from  the  degree  of 
humidity — and  very  much  from  winds  and  scud.  The  freshness 
and  strength  of  the  wind,  and  the  appearance  of  its  scud,  is  very 
much  in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  condition  to  which  it 
belongs.  This  is  true  of  all  the  conditions  but  especially  of  the 
summer  belt  of  showers.  Sometimes  the  S.W.  wind  is  very 
light,  dying  away  entirely  at  night-fall,  and  commencing  again 
about  8  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  the  condition  correspondingly 
weak. 

One  thing  should  be  here  again  noted  in  relation  to  these  sum- 
mer belts  of  showers.  When  they  are  intense,  they  precipitate 
as  they  pass  along,  persistently  night  and  day,  but  in  much  larger 
quantities  and  with  more  frequent  and  intense  thunder  and  light- 
ning where  they  happen  to  be  passing  in  the  afternoon.  When 
they  are  of  less  intensity  they  sometimes  precipitate  in  the  after- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  291 

noon  and  evening  only.  At  other  times,  when  very  weak,  the 
winds  will  be  light  and  perhaps  variable,  and  there  will  be  no  con- 
densation visible,  except  the  misty  cirrus  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day,  but  showers  will  form  in  the  afternoon  and  evening  where 
the  condition  may  then  happen  to  be.  I  have  frequently  seen 
them  thus  pass  over  the  country,  precipitating  where  they  were 
vertical,  in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  and  showing  little  conden- 
sation except  that  description  of  cirrus,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day.  Such  was  the  character  of  one  of  the  belts  described  by 
Mr,  Basnett,  As  a  rule,  however,  the  freshness  and  persistency 
of  the  southerly  wind,  the  temperature,  and  the  electric  state  of 
the  air  must  be  your  principal  reliance  in  judging  of  the  intensity 
of  an  approaching  belt  of  showers 

So  you  may  regard  the  presence  and  appearance  of  the  scud 
in  the  southerly  wind,  running  towards  the  approaching  belt  of 
condensation.  If  very  numerous,  and  large,  and  rugged  at  the 
edges,  and  moving  rapidly,  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  may  be  anticipated. 
That  description  of  scud  from  a  southerly  or  easterly  point,  run- 
ning rapidly,  are  conclusive  indications  of  a  heavy  rain-fall  at  the 
point  to  which  they  are  running.  I  have  frequently  predicted 
freshets  at  points  north,  west,  and  southwest,  when  those  scud  were 
thus  running,  and  without  failure. 

So  the  length  of  time,  and  the  freshness  and  strength  with  which 
a  southeaster  has  blown,  in  advance  of  the  body  of  a  condition, 
and  in  winter  its  warmth  and  humidity,  and  at  all  seasons  the 
number  and  character  of  its  scud,  are  indications  of  the  intensity 
of  the  body  of  the  condition  toward  which  it  is  moving  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  the  northeaster.  The  strength  and  fresh- 
ness of  the  wind  which  blows  towards  the  focus  of  the  storm, 
and  the  number  and  character  of  the  scud,  are  all  indicative  of 
its  strength.  When  the  wind,  however,  backs  into  north  by  east, 
it  is  an  indication  that  the  body  of  the  storm  is  to  the  southward, 
and  will  pass  by  without  further  precipitation  at  the  point  of  ob- 
servation. There  are  no  signs  more  important  and  more  reliable 
east  of  the  Alleghanies — and  so  far  as  I  know,  west  of  them — 
than  the  character  of  the  wind  and  scud.  When  fully  developed 


292  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

they  indicate  with  very  great  certainty,  where  the  observer  has  a 
favorable  horizon,  the  intensity  of  the  force  which  is  situated  in 
the  body  of  condensation,  and  has  created  them,  and  is  drawing 
them  to  itself. 

The  next  general  question  which  may  fairly  be  considered  with 
reference  to  prognostication  is — how  long  will  the  condition,  when 
it  has  reached  you,  continue  ?  This  depends  very  much  upon  its 
distinctive  character,  its  intensity,  and  the  season  of  the  year. 
Very  weak  belts  of  showers  in  summer,  or  southeaster  in  autumn 
— which  belong  to  the  same  class — are  of  short  duration.  The 
condensation  of  a  belt  of  showers  may  not  be  more  than  twenty 
miles  wide,  and  pass  over  in  less  than  two  hours.  I  have  seen 
the  S.E.  edge  of  one  which  precipitated  lightly,  extending  from 
horizon  to  horizon,  across  the  northwest,  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and 
in  two  hours  afterwards  it  had  passed  to  the  E.  and  S.E.,  and  its 
well-defined  northwestern  edge  was  S.E.  of  the  zenith,  extending 
in  like  manner  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  the  entire  N.W.,  half  of  the 
sky  being  cloudless.  That  condition  was  narrow,  and  had  a  rapid 
motion.  At  other  times,  I  have  known  those  belts  of  show- 
ers to  be  at  least  150  miles  wide  between  their  southeastern 
and  northwestern  edges,  having  showers  in  the  eastern  portion 
and  patches  of  cumulo-stratus  in  its  central  portions,  giving 
dashes  of  rain,  with  heavy  drops  and  a  darkened  atmosphere  as 
they  passed  along,  and  having  bands  of  cumulo  stratus  in  the 
northwestern  portion,  giving  what  are  termed  clearing-off  showers, 
as  that  northwestern  portion  passed  over  to  the  east,  and  the  sky 
became  clear  in  the  west  and  northwest.  You  will  see  from  this 
that  there  is  great  variety  in  the  width  of  the  belts  of  showers. 
We  have  no  means  of  judging  of  that  width  with  certainty,  or 
whether  additional  showers  are  contained  in  the  other  parts  of  it, 
except  by  telegraph.  But  we  may  know  something  of  it  from 
the  character  and  continuance  of  the  southerly  wind,  and  its 
scud — the  continuance  of  humidity,  and  our  feelings.  The  con- 
dition which  passed  over  Springfield,  in  August,  1859,  was  a 
wide  one,  but  not  a  very  intense  one.  It  was  more  than  24  hours 
from  the  time  when  its  eastern  edge  became  vertical  at  that  place 


THK    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  293 

to  the  lime  when  its  western  edge  attained  the  same  position. 
Iii  its  movement  from  Buffalo  to  Springfield,  it  precipitated  most, 
where  its  eastern  portion — which  contained  the  cumulo-stratus — 
was  vertical  in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  and  least,  where  that 
portion  was  vertical  in  the  early  part  of  the  day.  The  character 
of  the  precedent  southerly  wind  and  scud,  and  the  length  of  time 
which  they  continued,  and  the  degree  of  humidity,  in  connection 
with  the  season  of  the  year,  formed  a  very  good  indication  of  the 
length  of  time  which  the  condition  would  occupy  in  passing,  and 
I  had  no  difficulty  in  describing  it  in  advance. 

The  average  length  of  time  during  which  rain  falls  in  south- 
easters,  is  about  15  hours,  but  their  condensation  also  frequently 
thins  out  to  the  westward,  very  far  beyond  the  precipitating  por- 
tion of  it,  and  it  remains  cloudy  for  a  much  longer  period,  the 
wind  in  such  cases  hauling  slowly  around  through  the  S.W.  to 
N.W.  Some  idea  of  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  cloudiness 
will  remain,  may  be  formed  from  the  rapidity  or  slowness  with 
which  the  wind  veers  in  that  direction.  Where  the  southeaster 
is  narrow,  in  the  fall  and  winter  months,  the  N.W.  wind  blows 
under  the  N.W.  side  of  it,  and  in  such  cases  the  shift  of  wind 
is  very  sudden,  with  a  temporary  change  of  the  precipitation 
to  snow.  In  such  cases — as  in  the  condition  passing  over  Spring- 
field, Ohio, — you  may  know  that  the  condition  has  nearly  all 
passed.  When  one  of  this  class  of  conditions  is  met  at  sea  off 
our  coast,  and  the  lull  which  occurs  between  the  winds  is  passing 
over,  as  it  frequently  does  with  us,  the  mariner  supposes  that  he 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  storm,  but  that  lull  frequently  takes  place 
near  or  at  the  western  edge  of  the  condition,  and  then  when  the 
cloudiness  has  all  passed  by,  the  storm  clouds  of  the  condition  are 
seen  to  the  southeastward,  and  heavy  scud  are  seen  to  the  north- 
west, while  it  is  clear  overhead.  In  such  cases  the  mariner  im- 
agines or  is  told  by  theorists  that  he  sees  a  "  bull's  eye  "  in  the 
centre  of  the  storm.  But  when  the  storm  is  passing  over  land, 
we  see  and  know  that  lull  and  "  bull's  eye  "  to  be  just  what  I  have 
described  them.  And  as  we  see  the  same  storms  pass  out  on  to 


294  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

the  Atlantic,  we  may  safe1}'  presume  that  the  phenomena  are, 
sometimes  at  least,  of  precisely  the  same  character  there. 

The  northeaster  is  of  longer  continuance  than  any  other  of  the 
distinct  conditions.  It  is  rarely  less  than  48  hours  from  the  time 
when  the  first  cirrus  condensation  is  visible  and  its  wind  begins 
to  blow,  to  the  time  when  its  wind  and  rain  cease.  It  is  frequently 
twice  as  long,  and  sometimes  longer  still.  In  watching  for  the 
vortex  in  early  life,  with  as  honest  a  belief  in  its  existence  as 
any  disciple  of  Halley  ever  had,  expecting  sooner  or  later  to  see 
the  scud  go  up  perpendicularly  or  obliquely,  I  have  seen  them  run 
continuously  and  at  the  same  elevation  for  more  than  sixty  hours, 
and  until  the  body  of  the  storm  cloud  or  stratus  had  all  passed 
over  to  the  east. 

The  wind  not  unfrequently  blows  48  hours  towards  an  approach- 
ing northeaster,  before  its  precipitating  portion  reaches  us.  It  is 
more  difficult  therefore  to  estimate  the  continuance  of  a  north- 
easter than  any  other  of  the  distinct  conditions.  The  cessation 
of  the  wind,  its  backing  into  the  N.N.E.  and  N.,  when  the  focus 
of  the  storm  is  south,  or  the  appearance  of  a  light  streak  in  the 
south,  when  the  focus  of  the  storm  is  at  the  north,  are  indications 
that  the  body  of  it  has  passed  by.  The  wind  does  not  in  this 
condition  change  suddenly  to  the  N.W.  It  either  backs  slowly 
through  the  north  to  that  point,  or  veers  round  by  the  south,  or 
ceases  with  a  lull,  coming  directly  out  from  the  S.W.,  according 
as  the  focus  of  the  storm  is  S.  or  N.  or  over  the  observer.  From 
such  backing,  or  veering,  or  lull,  a  clearing  off  may  be  inferred. 

The  length  of  time  which  an  irregular  condition  will  occupy, 
it  is  still  more  difficult  to  estimate.  The  occasional,  but  very 
rare,  isolated  shower  which  forms  in  the  surface  story,  like  an 
English  shower,  will  last  but  a  few  minutes,  and  it  may  be  safely 
calculated  that  the  squall  constituted  by  the  coalescing  scud  of 
the  N.W.  wind  will  not  last  more  than  half  an  hour,  but  there 
are  irregular  conditions  which  may  last  for  many  days,  and  some- 
times more  than  a  week.  There  seems  to  be  a  continued  supply, 
in  large  volume,  and  a  general  diffusion  of  counter  or  upper  trade, 
more  or  less  evenly  all  over  the  middle  and  eastern  states,  with- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


295 


out  the  formation  of  distinct  conditions  or  strong  winds,  with 
alternating  areas  of  cloudiness,  fog,  rain,  or  snow,  according  to 
the  season  of  the  year,  the  varying  volume  of  the  trade,  and  the 
topography  of  the  country.  Such  irregular  conditions  have  been 
traced  over  Europe,  as  well  as  this  country.  It  is  impossible  to 
estimate  even  approximately  the  continuance  of  such  a  condition, 
without  the  aid  of  the  telegraph. 

Before  I  close  this  chapter,  I  will  give  you  the  table  of  Dr. 
Herschel  alluded  to,  with  alterations  by  Dr.  Adam  Clark,  as 
found  in  our  almanacs  and  other  popular  publications,  with  my 
views  of  it.  The  following  is  a  copy : 

"HERSCHEL'S  WEATHER  TABLE, 
"  For  foretelling  the  Weather,  through  all  Lunations  of  each  year 

forever. 

"  This  table  and  the  accompanying  remarks  are  the  result  of 
many  years'  actual  observation,  the  whole  being  constructed  on  a 
due  consideration  of  the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon,  in  their 
several  positions  respecting  the  earth,  and  will  by  simple  inspec- 
tion show  the  observer  what  kind  of  weather  will  most  proba- 
bly follow  the  entrance  of  the  moon  into  any  of  its  quarters,  and 
that  so  near  the  truth  as  to  be  seldom  or  never  found  to  fail. 


If  the  new  moon,  the   first 
quarter,  the  full  moon  or 
last  quarter  happens. 

In  Summer. 

In  Winter. 

Between  midnight  and  2  in  the 
morning. 

}«,.                   j 

Hard  frost,  unless  the  wind  is 
S.  orW. 

2  and    4,  morning 

Cold,  with  frequent  showers 

Snowy  or  stormy. 

land    6 

Rain 

Rain 

6  and    8          u 

Wind  and  rain. 

Stormy. 

8  and  10         " 

Changeable. 

Cold  rain,  if  the  wind  be  W  , 
snow  if  E  . 

—  10  and  12         " 

Frequent  showers. 

Cold,  and  high  wind. 

At  12  o'clk  noon,  and  2pm., 
Between  2  and  4  p.m., 

Very  rainy. 
Changeable. 

Snow  or  rain. 
Fair  and  mild. 

land    6 

Fair. 

Fair. 

8M 

Fair  if  wind  N  W.                   j 

Fair  and  frosty,  if  the  wind  is 

Nf\v  "M  "E1 

Rainy,  if  S.  or  S.W.               | 

Or  IN  J3j. 

Rain  or  snow,  if  S.  or  S.W. 

8  and  10, 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

10  and  midnight. 

Fair. 

Fair  and  frosty. 

OBSERVATIONS. — 1.  The  nearer  the  time  of  the  moon's  change, 


296  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

first  quarter,  full,  and  last  quarter,  are  to  midmgkt,t\ie  fairer  will 
be  the  weather  during  the  seven  days  following.  2.  The  space 
for  this  calculation  occupies  from  ten  at  night  till  two  next  morn- 
ing. 3.  The  nearer  to  midday,  or  noon,  the  phases  of  the  moon 
happen,  the  more  foul  or  wet  weather  may  be  expected  during 
the  next  seven  days.  4.  The  space  for  this  calculation  occupies 
from  ten  in  the  forenoon  to  two  in  the  afternoon.  These  obser- 
vations refer  principally  to  the  summer,  though  they  affect  spring 
and  autumn  nearly  in  the  same  ratio.  5.  The  moon's  change, 
first  quarter,  full,  and  last  quarter,  happening  during  six  of  the 
afternoon  hours,  i.  e.,  from  four  to  ten,  may  be  followed  by  fair 
weather ;  but  this  is  mostly  dependent  on  the  wind,  as  is  noted  in 
the  table.  6.  Though  the  weather,  from  a  variety  of  irregular 
causes,  is  more  uncertain  in  the  latter  part  of  autumn,  the  whole 
of  winter,  and  the  beginning  of  spring,  yet,  in  the  main,  the  above 
observations  will  apply  to  those  periods  also.  7.  To  prognosticate 
correctly,  especially  in  those  cases  where  the  wind  is  concerned, 
the  observer  should  be  within  sight  of  a  good  vane,  where  the 
four  cardinal  points  of  the  heavens  are  correctly  placed. 

The  above  table  was  originally  formed  by  Dr.  Herschel,  and 
is  now  published  with  some  alterations  founded  on  the  experience 
of  Dr.  Adam  Clarke." 

The  table  is  clearly  empirical.  1.  It  professes  to  be  founded 
on  "  a  due  consideration  of  the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
in  their  several  positions  respecting  the  earth."  But  no  other 
observable,  or  at  least  material  effect  produced  upon  the  atmos- 
phere by  the  mere  attraction  of  the  sun,  or  moon,  or  both,  has 
been  detected.  Certainly  the  table  makes  no  reference  to,  and 
admits  no  difference  of  effect  from  the  Apogee  and  Perigee  posi- 
tions, although  they  influence  attraction  and  the  tides  to  the  ex- 
tent of  one-seventh  or  more.  If  the  mere  attraction  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  which  produce  the  tides,  have  any  effect  on  the  at- 
mosphere, why  not  create  a  tide  in  it,  and  why  not  a  greater  tide, 
or  greater  or  less  effect  on  the  weather  at  Apogee  or  Perigee  ? 

2.  The  table  is  absurd  on  its  face.  What  possible  difference 
can  it  make  with  the  existing  conditions,  or  with  the  organ- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  297 

ization  of  new  ones,  whether  the  moon  arrives  at  a  given  point 
of  its  orbit  a  half  an  hour  earlier  or  later  in  the  day  ?  None 
can  be  conceived  of.  Yet  the  table  says  a  difference  of  half 
an  hour,  or  an  hour,  will  make  the  weather  fair  or  foul  for 
seven  days  ensuing.  I  cannot  imagine  a  greater  absurdity. 
Again,  four  of  the  twelve  periods  are  made  contingent  on 
the  wind,  but  the  wind  is  produced  by,  and  does  not  produce  the 
conditions  or  the  weather.  And  finally,  in  relation  to  the  weather, 
coincidences  are  remembered,  and  exceptions  are  forgotten ;  and 
during  the  rainy  or  dry  seasons,  there  are  periods  when  such  co- 
incidences must  exist  and  those  are  remembered,  while  the  fail- 
ures are  forgotten,  or  are  attributed  to  some  other  cause.  The 
table  is,  I  repeat,  empirical,  and  not  to  be  relied  on. 

There  is  very  little  on  the  subject  of  prognostication  to  be 
found  in  the  writings  of  American  Meteorologists. 

Prof.  Loomis  in  his  recent  treatise,  has  several  sections  respect- 
ing predictions  of  the  weather,  whicli  I  copy.  As  containing 
what  a  leading  meteorologist  teaches  his  classes,  and  publishes  to 
be  used  in  our  colleges  and  schools,  they  require  examination. 

The  following  is  an  accurate  copy  of  the  whole : 

SECTION  V. — PREDICTIONS  OF  THE  WEATHER. 

303.  "  The  character  of  the  weather  at  any  place  is  affected 
by  so  many  circumstances  which  may  transpire  at  distant  parts 
of  the  world,  and  which  can  be  but  very  imperfectly  known  to  us, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  predict,  except  very  imperfectly,  what 
may  be  expected  at  a  given  time  and  place.     To  a  limited  extent 
however,  such  predictions  are  possible. 

304.  Predictions  founded  upon  the  constancy  of  climate.     Re- 
lying upon  the  constancy  of  climate,  which  has  been  established 
by  observation,  we  may  predict  the  probable  general  character  of 
any  month  of  the  year. 

The  climate  of  a  country  remains  permanently  the  same  from 

age   to  age.     Observations    continued  for  an  entire  century  at 

various  places  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  indicate  no  change 

in  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year,  or  that  of  the  separate 

14 


298  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

months  ;  no  change  in  the  range  of  the  thermometer  ;  no  change 
in  the  time  of  the  last  frost  of  spring  or  the  first  frost  of  autumn  ; 
in  the  annual  amount  of  rain  or  snow,  or  in  the  mean  direction 
of  the  wind.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  climate  of  any  country, 
in  either  of  these  respects,  has  changed  appreciably  in  2000  years. 
By  the  destruction  of  forests,  the  earth  is  more  directly  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  the  moisture  of  the  ground  is  more  read- 
ily evaporated  ;  streams  more  frequently  dry  up  in  summer,  and 
drouths  become  more  fi  equent  and  severe.  But  these  changes 
do  not  seem  to  affect  in  a  sensible  manner  the  mean  temperature 
of  any  place,  or  the  annual  amount  of  rain. 

Assuming  then,  the  established  constancy  of  climate,  we  can 
predict  beforehand  the  probable  character  of  any  month  of  the  year. 
Thus,  at  New  Haven,  the  probable  mean  temperature  of  any 
future  January,  will  be  26°.  We  may  be  tolerably  sure  that  it 
will  not  be  higher  than  36°,  nor  lower  than  17°.  The  thermom- 
eter in  January  will  never  rise  above  64°,  nor  sink  below  24°. 
The  entire  annual  amount  of  rain  at  New  Haven  will  not  exceed 
55  inches,  and  will  not  be  less  than  34  inches. 

305.  Conclusions  drawn  from  anomalous  months.     Moreover, 
if  several  months  in   succession  have  been  unusually  warm,  or 
unusually  cold,  instead  of  concluding  that  the  climate  has  perma- 
nently changed  and  that  the   succeeding  months  will  be  similar 
in  character,  we  should  rather  anticipate  months  of  the  opposite 
description,  since  the   mean  temperature   of  the  year  fluctuates 
within  very  narrow  limits,  and  the  longer  a  period  of  unusually 
warm  weather  continues,  the  greater  is  the  probability  that  the  suc- 
ceeding months  will  be  unusually  cold.     Predictions  of  this  kind 
are  legitimate  deductions  from  scientific  data. 

306.  Predictions  founaed  upon  the  established  laws  of  storms. 
Since  great  storms  have  been  found  to  observe  pretty  well-defined 
laws,  both  as  respects  the  motion  of  the  wind  and  the  direction 
of  their  progress,  we  may  often  recognize  such  a  storm  in  its 
progress,  and  anticipate   changes  which  may  succeed  during  the 
next  few  hours.     When  it  is  possible  to  obtain   telegraphic  re- 
ports of  the  weather,  from  several  places   in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  and  its   tributaries,  we  may  often   predict  with  confi- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  299 

dence  the  approach  of  a  great  storm,  twenty-four  hours  before  its 
violence  is  felt  at  New  York. 

307.  Observations  of  the  Meteorological  Instruments  at  a  sin- 
gle place.     When  we  are  restricted  to  observations  at  one  local- 
ity, our  predictions  of  the  weather  must  needs  be  more  uncertain, 
and  the  conclusions  to  be  derived  from  a  motion  of  meteorological 
instruments  are  not  the  same  for  all  parts  of  the  world.     Along 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  the  approach  of  a  violent 
N.E.  storm  is  generally  indicated  by  the  barometer  rising  above 
its  mean  height ;  at  the  same  time  the  wind  veers  to  the  N.E. 
and  the  atmosphere  grows  hazy.     After  the  rain  or  snow  com- 
mences, the  barometer  begins  to  fall ;  when  the  barometer  reaches 
its  lowest  point,  the  wind  changes  to  N.  or  N.W.,  after  which  the 
barometer  begins  to  rise. 

If  a  gale  sets  in  from  the  E.  or  S.E.,  and  the  wind  veers  by 
the  south,  the  barometer  will  continue  falling  until  the  wind  be- 
comes S.W.,  when  a  comparative  lull  may  occur,  after  which  the 
gale  will  be  renewed,  and  the  change  of  the  wind  toward  the 
N.W.  will  be  accompanied  by  a  fall  of  the  thermometer  as  well 
as  a  rise  of  the  barometer. 

A  considerable  and  rapid  depression  of  the  barometer — for  in- 
stance a  fall  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  twenty-four  hours — 
indicates  an  approaching  storm,  with  rain  or  snow.  The  wind 
will  be  from  the  northward  if  the  thermometer  is  low  for  the 
season,  from  the  southward  if  the  thermometer  is  high.  If  the 
barometer  falls  with  a  rising  thermometer,  and  increased  damp- 
ness, wind  and  rain  may  be  expected  from  the  southward. 

A  rapid  rise  of  the  barometer  indicates  unsettled  weather ;  a 
slow  rise  indicates  fair  weather.  The  result  of  all  rapid  changes 
in  the  weather,  or  in  any  of  the  instrumental  indications,  is  brief 
in  duration,  while  that  of  a  gradual  change  is  more  durable. 

308.  Prognostics  from  the  face  of  the  s%,  clouds,  $c. — When 
the  upper  clouds  move  in  a  direction  different  from  that  of  the 
lower  clouds,  or  that  of  the  wind  then  blowing,  they  foretell  a 
change  of  wind. 

When  the  outlines  of  cumulus  clouds  are  sharp,  it  indicates  a 


300  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

dry  atmosphere,  and  therefore  presages  fine  weather.  Small,  inky 
looking  clouds  foretell  rain.  A  light  scud  driving  across  hazy 
clouds  indicate  wind  and  rain. 

Remarkable  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  near  the  horizon,  and 
an  unusual  twinkling  of  the  stars,  indicate  unusual  humidity  in 
the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are  therefore  indications 
of  approaching  rain. 

Halos,  coronas,  etc.,  presage  approaching  rain  or  snow.  Dew 
and  fog  are  indications  of  fine  weather." 

And  now  let  us  examine  this  with  care,  and  seek  for  clear  ideas. 
Section  303,  so  far  as  it  is  a  confession  of  ignorance,  is  well,  but 
the  assertion  that  the  circumstances  which  affect  the  weather  at 
any  place,  "can  be  but  imperfectly  known  to  us"  is  ill.  They 
can  and  will  be  known  to  the  next  generation  if  not  to  this.  But 
they  will  not  be  understood  by  the  present  generation  of  meteor- 
ologists, if  they  persist  in  ignoring  developments  made  by  practi- 
cal men  because  they  conflict  with  their  theories. 

Section  304,  asserts  the  constancy  of  climate,  and  that  is  true. 
The  variations  during  the  decade,  and  between  the  different  de- 
cades, caused  by  variations  in  the  power  exerted  by  the  sun,  de- 
pendent in  part  at  least  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  spots,  ex- 
plain all  the  supposed  inconsistencies  of  climate.  But  to  gravely 
inform  a  graduating  class,  that  the  weather  and  rain-fall  for  a 
given  month  will  probably  be  within  the  extreme  limits  of  either 
during  any  like  month  for  a  century,  is  not  saying  very  much  in 
the  way  of  prediction. 

The  next  Section  305,  relating  to  "  conclusions  drawn  from 
anomalous  months,"  contains  a  fallacy  which  is  said  to  be  de- 
duced from  "  scientific  data."  What  the  data  can  be  I  cannot 
conceive.  It  is  not  true  as  a  rule,  that  "  several  months  in 
succession  "  which  are  unusually  cold  or  unusually  hot,  are  fol- 
lowed by  succeeding  months  of  an  opposite  description,  as  the 
following  table,  showing  the  mean  temperature  at  stations  taken 
from  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  connection  therewith  the 
temperature  of  the  seasons  and  year  during  the  hottest  and  coldest 
years  of  the  period  covered  by  the  records  respectively,  will  de- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


301 


monstrate.  On  examining  it  and  comparing  the  temperatures 
with  the  means,  you  will  see  that  during  i  he  hottest  years  the 
elevation  of  temperature  above  the  mean,  is  carried  through  all 
the  seasons,  and  in  like  manner  in  the  cold  years  the  depression 
is  carried  through  them  all  and  the  asserted  contrasts  or  compen- 
sations do  not  exist.  Comparisons  of  any  two  of  the  seasons,  in 
those  or  other  years,  lead  to  the  same  result. 

TABLE  OF  MEAN  TEMPERATURES. 
Fort  Sullivan,  (Maine.) 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter 

Year. 

Mean  of  25  years, 
1826 
1823 

40.15 
41.58 
38.51 

60.50 
64.83 
59.87 

47.52 
48.88 
44.66 

23.90 
2457 
22.21 

43  02 
44.  9G 
41.31 

Range, 


3.65 


Fort  Independence. 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  17  years, 
1825 
1836 

46.02 
48.74 
44.69 

68.50 
71.87 
67.13 

52.45 
53.12 
48.55 

28.63 
30.60 
2498 

48.92 
51.08 
46.34 

Range, 


4.74 


Fort  Columbus. 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  33  vears, 
1825 
1836 

48.74 
52.52 
44.85 

72.10 
76.62 
67.74 

64.55 
56.21 
49.50 

31.38 
32.36 
28.17 

51.69 
5443 
47.56 

Range, 


6.87 


Fort  McHenry. 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter 

Year. 

Mean  of  24  years. 

1850 
1836 

5270 
51.51 
49.25 

7432 
75.73 
70.50 

56.20 
59.16 
52.78 

3424 
39.44 
3381 

54.36 
5646 
6158 

Range, 


488 


302                                    THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Fort  Moultrie. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  28  years, 
1828 
1841 

65.85 
68.80 
63.18 

80.59 
8388 
80.26 

68.11 

69.92 
67.07 

51.76 
61.96 
50.64 

66.58 
71.14 
63.16 

7.98 

Fort  Towson. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  20  years, 
1839 
1835 

Range, 

62.39 
6579 
61.11 

79.16 
80.70 
76.47 

61.27 
62.12 
66.98 

43.92 
44.39 
41.44 

61.69 
63.25 
59.00 

4.25 

Jefferson  Barracks. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  26  years, 
1827 
1843 

Range, 

56.15 
69.24 

47.83 

7619 

78.48 
74.67 

5563 

60.78 
54.06 

33.85 
38.58 
32.35 

55.46 
69.27 
52.23 

7.04 

Fort  Snelling. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  35  years, 

1830 
1843 

Range, 

45.57 
48.49 
33.49 

70.64 
75.06 
66.48 

45.89 
52.08 
44.09 

16.07 
17.81 
15.28 

44.54 

48.36 
39.83 

8.53 

Fort  Brady. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Mean  of  31  years, 

1830 
1837 

Range, 

37.60 
40.86 
29.82 

62.01 
64.23 
5737 

4354 
49.60 
42.62 

18.31 

18.84 
15.99 

40.37 
43.48 
36.45 

7.03 

Nor  is  it  true,  as  asserted   in  that  paragraph,  that  "  the  mean 
temperature   of  the  year  fluctuates   within  very  narrow  limits." 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  303 

None  of  the  records  from  which  the  above  table  was  compiled, 
embraced  the  cold  decade  from  1810  to  1820,  and  several  did  not 
include  the  cold  decade  from  1830  to  1840.  The  greatest  annual 
range  at  New  Bedford,  which  feels  the  influence  of  the  Gulf 
Stream,  and  is  very  equable,  is  G  degrees,  viz : 

1825,  -         51.02 

183G,  45.02 

6.00 

If  we  had  accurate  registers  from  the  interior  as  well  as  the 
coast,  including  the  cold  decades  from  1810  to  1820,  and  1830  to 
1840,  the  extremes  of  annual  range  for  the  whole  eastern  half 
of  the  continent  would  average  more  than  seven  degrees,  and 
that  is  far  from  being  a  "  fluctuation  within  narrow  limits." 

Contrasts  occasionally  occur  in  the  English  climate,  between 
open  winters  and  late  springs.  To  such  a  contrast  the  English 
proverb  refers  : 

"  If  Janiveer  (January)  kalends  be  summerly  gay, 
It  will  be  wintry  weather  in  kalends  of  May." 

I  alluded  to  them  in  the  "Philosophy  of  the  Weather"  But  a 
careful  examination  of  the  records  since,  has  satisfied  me  that 
they  rarely  if  ever  occur  here,  and  never  then,  or  at  other  seasons, 
as  a  rule  on  which  prediction  can  be  founded.  Indeed,  the  devel- 
opments I  have  made,  show  that  it  is  impossible.  The  seasons 
are  too  perfectly  controlled  by  intelligible  laws. 

The  next  Section  (306)  relates  to  predictions  founded  on  the 
established  laws  of  storms,  and  is  all  in  one  sentence,  and  that  in 
the  most  general  terms.  And  there  is  very  little  else  in  the  body 
of  the  work,  which  bears  upon  it.  It  was  not  possible  for  the  Pro- 
fessor to  say  anything  and  say  less,  and  it  is  obvious  he  has  no 
definite  or  digested  comprehension  of  this  branch  of  the  subject. 

With  reference  to  the  observation  of  meteorological  instru- 
ments he  has  one  general  remark,  and  the  fact  that  the  barome- 
ter rises  along  the  Atlantic  coast  before  a  northeaster.  If  he 
what  his  language  by  implication  imports — that  the  same 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

thing  does  not  take  place  elsewhere,  he  is  mistaken.  It  occurs,  but 
less  frequently,  west  of  the  mountains  and  in  Canada,  and  occa- 
sionally in  England.  He  is  also  wrong  in  stating,  broadly,  that 
when  the  barometer  reaches  its  lowest  point,  the  wind  changes  by 
the  N.  to  N.W.  It  does  so  in  the  latter  part  of  winter  and  in 
the  spring,  in  overland  storms,  when  the  focus  of  the  storm  is 
south  of  the  observer.  But  when  the  focus  passes  over  the  ob- 
server it  usually  lulls  and  comes  out  at  the  S.W.  or  W.,  and  when 
in  summer  the  focus  is  at  the  north,  the  wind  in  a  majority  of 
instances  hauls  round  by  the  south  to  the  S.  W.,  and  does  not  go  to 
the  N.  or  N.W.  at  all.  A  further  discrimination  must  be  made 
in  relation  to  hurricane  storms,  which  hug  the  coast.  Their 
northeast  winds  back  into  the  north  when  very  distinct  and  violent. 

The  next  three  paragraphs  of  that  section  contain  English 
rules,  and  are  in  substance  and  expression  substantially  identical 
with  some  of  those  given  by  Mr.  Steinmetz.  The  first  of  them 
is  sometimes  though  not  always  true,  where  the  involved  condi- 
tion is  true,  viz :  that  "  the  wind  veers  by  the  south."  But  it 
should  be  added  that  the  wind  often  changes  in  such  storms  to  the 
N.W.  without  veering  through  the  S.W.  The  second  paragraph 
is  true,  with  this  qualification,  that  whatever  may  be  true  in  Eng- 
land, storms  never  set  in  here  with  the  wind  from  the  northward  or 
north  of  northeast.  Nor  do  they,  as  a  rule,  precipitate  after  the 
wind  has  backed  from  the  N.E.  into  the  N.  The  third  paragraph 
is  true  but  very  generally  expressed. 

In  the  subject  matter  of  the  308th  Section,  the  Professor  is 
still  less  at  home.  The  first  paragraph  is  untrue.  The  upper 
clouds  in  storms  are  cirrus  clouds,  and  have  a  direction  substan- 
tially invariable,  which,  north  of  35°,  is  from  some  point  between 
S.W.  and  W.  The  lower  clouds  or  scud  float  in  the  existing 
wind  and  are  characterized  by  it,  and  in  most  instances  have  a 
different  direction.  A  change  of  wind  therefore,  cannot  be  pre- 
dicted on  the  mere  difference  of  direction  between  the  upper  or 
cirrus,  or  the  middle  stratus  or  storm  clouds,  and  the  lower  or 
scud.  As  a  rule,  and  as  expressed  by  the  Professor,  who  obvi- 
ously is  not  a  practical  observer,  it  is  incorrect  and  deceptive. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  305 

The  author  from  whom  he  copied  it  meant  to  say  that  when  (as 
is  often  the  case)  the  wind  is  about  to  change,  that  change  will 
be  indicated  by  the  scud  in  the  new  wind,  running  under  the  scud 
of  the  existing  wind,  before  the  new  wind  indicated  is  felt  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  It  is  therefore  a  contrast  between  two  layers 
of  scud,  both  in  the  surface  story,  and  not  between  a  layer  of 
scud  and  the  "  upper  clouds "  of  the  storm.  It  is  well  to  look 
for  it  when  the  wind  is  about  to  change  to  N.  W.  in  a  southeaster, 
and  it  is  well  to  observe  carefully  the  running  of  the  scud  in  all 
storms.  An  occasional  glance  which  requires  little  time  will 
suffice.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  our  professed  meteorol- 
ogists should  so  generally  fail  to  appreciate  the  importance  and 
duty  of  habitual  personal  observation. 

The  second  paragraph  of  that  section  contains  three  proposi- 
tions. The  first  refers  to  the  smooth  rounded  form  of  the  cumu- 
lus clouds,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  fair  weather  scud  of 
the  N.W.  wind.  They  are  concurrent  incidents  of  the  fair  weather 
wind  of  a  condition,  and  do  not  "  presage  "  anything,  unless  it  is 
correct  to  say  that  they  presage  an  existing  concurrent  thing.  A 
specimen  of  them  may  be  seen  on  page  40,  (Fig.  9,)  and  they  are 
there  fully  described.  What  is  meant  by  "  small  inky  looking 
clouds,"  referred  to  in  the  second  paragraph,  I  cannot  conceive. 
I  have  seen  the  expression  in  some  school  book,  and  it  appears  in 
Fitzroy's  "  Weather  Guide"  but  it  is  not  intelligible.  "  The  light 
scud  "  referred  to  in  the  third  clause,  "  driving  "  or  floating  in  an 
incident  wind,  toward  an  approaching  storm,  is  an  important 
indication  always,  but  what  he  means  by  driving  across  hazy 
clouds  is  not  so  intelligible.  The  expression  is  altogether  too  hazy 
and  indefinite  for  accurate  comprehension. 

The  third  paragraph  may  be  true  in  England  where  it  origi- 
nated, but  it  is  rarely  seen  here,  and  is  of  very  little  consequence. 
Reliance  must  be  placed  upon  other  and  more  important  signs. 

The  last  paragraph,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  halos  and  coronas,  is 
deceptive.  Coronas  are  not  always  followed  by  rain  or  snow,  for 
they  are  frequently  seen  in  the  lateral  outlying  cirrus  of  a  storm 
which  is  passing  by  to  the  south.  The  same  is  often  true  of 


306  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

halos.  The  rules  for  distinguishing  those  which  do  presage  ap- 
proaching conditions,  I  have  already  given  you.  A  discrimina- 
tion of  which  the  Professor  has  obviously  no  conception,  is  nec- 
essary in  relation  to  halos. 

The  rest  of  the  paragraph  is  not  all  true.  Dew  is  ordinarily  an 
accompaniment  or  consequence,  instead  of  a  presage  of  fine  weath- 
er. The  absence  of  it  is  suspicious,  unless  it  is  occasioned  by  the 
N.W.  wind  and  scud  of  a  condition  which  has  just  passed,  contin- 
uing through  the  night.  Dew  is  often  noticed  as  it  rests  in  large 
drops  upon  the  spiders  webs,  which  are  built  by  that  insect  upon 
the  grass.  The  popular  idea  is  that  the  webs  are  built  in  antici- 
pation of  fine  weather,  but  it  is  a  mistake.  The  young  spiders 
build  their  web-traps  in  the  grass  to  catch  their  food,  because 
they  are  hungry,  merely,  and  the  traps  may  always  be  found  un- 
less a  recent  heavy  rain  has  destroyed  them.  The  heavy  dew- 
drops  resting  upon  them,  render  them  visible.  And  so  will  a 
very  wet  morning  fog,  or  the  fog  which  accompanies  southeasters, 
when  they  deposit  moisture. 

And  fog  sometimes  attends  storms,  and  is  often  produced  by 
their  lateral  influence ;  and  when  the  storm  or  belt  of  showers 
which  induces  it  is  at  the  N.W.  rain  may  follow  it.  There  is  a 
tendency  to  fog,  at  and  after  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  during 
set  fair  weather,  in  summer  and  autumn,  and  in  valleys.  But  fog 
forms  in  the  day  time  even  in  winter,  in  connection  with  south- 
east thaws,  which  aids  in  melting  the  snow  but  is  chilly  to  the 
senses,  and  hence  the  proverb  : 

"  A  winter  fog 
Will  freeze  a  dog." 

Now  fog  does  not  occur  in  winter  except  in  connection  with 
storms.  And  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  fogs  and  mists  may  form 
before  storms  on  the  hills  ;  and  with  or  during  easterly  storms  at 
all  elevations.  The  expressions  "  it  set  in  thick  " — "  it  came  on 
thick" — before  a  storm, — and  "the  fog  lifted"  when  about  to 
clear  off,  refer  to  such  fogs,  and  are  often  seen  in  the  logs  of  sea- 
men. And  when  it  so  "  sets  in"  during  a  cloudy  afternoon,  on 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  307 

the  land,  we  anticipate  a  rainy  night ;  and  when  in  the  forenoon 
following,  "  the  fog  lifts,"  we  know  it  is  about  to  clear  off. 

In  view  of  the  developments  heretofore  made  on  this  branch 
of  the  subject,  by  myself  and  others,  it  is  to  be  lamented  that  such 
a  meagre,  undiscriminating,  and,  in  many  respects,  inaccurate  de- 
scription of  the  means  of  prognostication  is  all  that  a  leading  me- 
teorologist has  to  offer  in  his  lectures  to  a  graduating  class  of 
young  men,  in  one  of  our  principal  colleges,  and  in  a  treatise 
intended  for  use  in  other  colleges  and  schools. 

There  is  extant  in  England  another  collection  of  rules,  pre- 
pared for  the  Board  of  Trade  by  Admiral  Fitzroy,  but  it  contains 
nothing  of  material  value  to  us,  which  is  not  embodied  in  the 
foregoing  development. 

I  know  of  no  other  collection  deserving  your  notice. 

I  have  thus  given  you  a  concise,  but  substantially  accurate  de- 
velopment of  the  system  as  made  by  the  Creator.  In  doing  this 
I  have  avoided,  as  far  as  possible,  the  consideration  of  theories, 
I  have  come  to  regard  them,  and  the  men  who  persistently  and 
against  new  truths  as  discovered,  promulgate  and  teach  them,  with 
a  degree  of  disgust  which  I  have  not  been  able  to  restrain.  I 
sinned  somewhat  myself  in  that  way,  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  the 
Weather,"  but  I  do  not  intend  to  so  sin  again.  In  my  judgment 
there  is  no  apology  to  be  made  for  the  persistent  theorist  who 
does  not  test  his  theories  by  newly  discovered  truth.  Indeed,  with 
our  present  knowledge  or  means  of  knowledge,  there  is  'no  apol- 
ogy for  theorizing  at  all. 

And  here  I  might  with  propriety  consider  my  promise  fulfilled 
and  close  the  volume.  But  it  has  been  my  intention  from  the 
outset  to  invite  you  to  accompany  me  in  an  inductive  considera- 
tion of  the  motive  force  of  the  system,  and  its  mode  of  operation, 
in  a  concluding  chapter,  but  not,  it  must  be  understood,  as  theorists. 
I  think  the  practical  rnind  of  the  country,  trained  by  business  in 
the  logic  of  cause  and  effect,  peculiarly  well  qualified  to  judge 
correctly,  upon  the  facts,  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  character  of 
the  force.  We  will  together  then  enter  upon  that  enquiry  in 
another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  organization  and  motive  force  of  the  system  invisible — its  existence 
recognized  in  its  effects — a  knowledge  of  it  to  be  acquired  by  inference 
from  the  nature  of  the  organizations  and  their  actions.  Elements  of  the 
tornado  and  their  mode  of  operation — place  where  it  originates — manner 
of  formation  and  form — its  appearance  and  substance — its  apparent  man- 
ner of  action  in  the  air — its  action  and  mode  of  operation  in  contact  Avith 
the  earth — estimates  of  the  force  employed — various  descriptions  of  the 
power  of  that  force — operates  in  two  lateral  lines  or  currents.  The  right 
hand  current  crosses  the  center  in  advance  of  the  left  hand,  curves  back- 
wards and  ascends  over  it.  The  left  hand  current  curves  behind  the  other 
and  rises  over  it,— both  together  constituting  the  whirl  in  the  air.  These 
currents  thus  existing  and  operating,  constitute  the  law  of  the  tornado. 
This  law  of  the  small  is  also  the  law  of  the  great,  and  is  traceable  through 
all  the  varied  atmospheric  organizations — Traced  first  in  the  belts  of  show- 
ers and  in  elliptical  storms  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere — in  those  of  the 
Southern  Hemisphere — nearly  all  storms  of  that  Hemisphere  of  this  char- 
acter. Critical  examination  of  Col.  Reid's  chapter  on  the "  Gales  of 
High  Southern  Latitudes" — in  every  instance  he  purports  to  describe 
the  northern  half  of  the  gale — southern  half  of  a  revolving  gale  not  ex- 
perienced— all  the  gales  described  by  him,  were,  with  a  single  excep- 
tion, elliptical — that  exception  a  straight  line  southeaster,  corresponding 
to  our  straight  line  northeasters.  "  Ojo"  of  the  Spaniards,  not  an  indi 
cation  of  the  center  of  the  storm — constituted  by  a  clear  interval  after 
the  storm  clouds  have  all  passed  by,  and  before  the  scud  of  the  fair 
weather  wind  obscure  the  sky.  The  same  kind  of  storm's  eye  visible  with 
us,  at  least  ten  times  a  year, — never  seen  in  the  center  of  the  storm. — All 
the  descriptions  cited  by  Col.  Reid,  belonged  to  elliptical  storms  with  lat- 
eral winds — described  as  such  by  Mr.  Meldrum.  Extended  examination 
of  the  theories  of  Redfield  and  Espy.  Certain  amount  of  truth  in  both 
of  them.  Some  storms  elliptical  as  claimed  by  Espy — others  semi-revolv- 
ing as  claimed  by  Redtield — instances  and  illustrations  of  both.  Hur- 
ricane of  1821.  Hurricane  of  1869.  Examination  of  the  views  of  Prof. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  309 

Henry  as  promulgated  in  the  Patent  Office  Reports — those  views  crude 
and  untruthful.  Intolerance  and  persistency  of  meteorologists  in  rela- 
tion to  this  matter.  Return  to  the  inquiry  what  is  the  force.  Exam- 
ination of  the  group  of  the  diurnal  changes — instructive  but  not  conclu- 
sive. Must  find  a  force  that  originates  the  conditions  and  prescribes 
their  paths  unaffected  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  That  rotation  does 
not  control  or  affect  the  circulation  of  the  atmosphere — current  theories 
on  that  subject  all  fallacies.  But  one  such  force  known,  and  that  is  elec- 
tricity General  view  of  that  agent  and  its  operations  or  phases.  Vari- 
ous propositions  and  illustrations,  showing  the  manner  in  which  it  ope- 
rates in  organizing  the  system  and  producing  the  varied  phenomena, 
and  in  that  connection  an  extended  examination  of  the  magnetism  of  the 
earth,  and  how  it  is  constituted.  Its  associated  currents  of  electricity,  and 
their  mode  of  operation.  Particular  examination  of  the  manner  in  which 
magnetism  is  diffused  over  the  earth,  affecting  climate,  disease,  and  the 
activity  and  energy  of  its  inhabitants.  Appeal  to  the  various  classes  of 
practical  men  to  aid  in  reforming  the  science  and  extending  the  truth. 

The  organizing  and  motive-force  of  the  Atmospheric  System  is 
invisible.  We  recognize  its  existence  only  in  its  effects.  A  knowl- 
edge of  its  nature  and  mode  of  operation  can  only  be  acquired 
therefore,  by  inference  from  the  nature  of  the  special  and  general 
organizations  we  have  contemplated,  their  action,  and  the  result- 
ing phenomena  and  effects,  aided,  perhaps  by  an  analogical  view 
of  its  mode  of  operation  and  effects  in  other  parts  of  the  physical 
world. 

Let  us  then  look  critically  and  carefully  at  the  structure  of  the 
special  and  general  organizations  constituting  the  Atmospheric 
System,  and  the  mode  of  operation  and  phenomena  peculiar  to 
each. 

It  was  sensibly  said  by  a  very  sensible  man — Prof.  Dana,  of 
Yale  College,  in  commenting,  editorially,  on  the  Schuyler  Tor- 
nado, that  "  throughout  nature  the  small  and  the  great  have  a  com- 
mon law"  which  "  is  often  best  read  in  the  small"  and  we  will 
commence  with  the  small. 

The  least  and  most  distinct  of  the  atmospheric  organizations  is 
the  tornado.  What  are  its  elements  and  their  mode  of  operation, 
or,  in  other  words,  what  is  its  law  ?  To  determine  this,  we  must 


310  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

analyze  those  elements,  and  their  mode  of  concurrent  operation 
and  effects.  I  have  alluded  to  them  in  a  general  way,  in  Chapter 
3d,  but  we  must  now  be  critical  and  particular. 

I.    FIRST,    THEN,    AS    TO    THE    PLACE    WHERE    IT    ORIGINATES. 

It  forms  at  the  inferior  surface  of  an  extensive  stratus  or  cumulo- 
stratus  cloud  of  the  second  story,  and  extends  itself  downward  to 
the  earth.  This  is  invariably  true,  where  its  path  is  narrow,  and 
its  form  distinct,  so  far  as  observation  has  extended.  The  rain- 
bearing  clouds  of  a  general  storm  or  of  a  summer  belt  of  showers, 
have  been  present  in  more  than  fifty  such  instances,  and  in  all 
which  are  upon  record  in  this  country  since  1809.  Of  one  which 
occurred  during  that  year  in  Cincinnati,  described  by  Dr.  Drake, 
it  is  said,  "A  general  rain  was  falling." 

That  which  occurred  at  Charleston,  September  10th,  1811,  is 
described  as  occurring  in  a  violent  storm  of  West  India  origin. 
That  most  destructive  one  at  Natchez,  in  1840,  occurred  upon  a 
day  which  is  described  as  warm  and  cloudy.  That  described 
by  Mr.  Chappelsmith,  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  April  30th, 
1852,  occurred  upon  a  day  which  was  generally  cloudy  and  threat- 
ening. One  at  Brandon,  Ohio,  Jan.  20th,  1854,  is  described  as 
the  most  violent  of  several  partial  tornadoes,  forming  in  a  widely- 
extended  general  storm  in  which  the  temperature  was  very  high. 
The  Schuyler  Tornado,  which  occurred  in  June,  1857,  formed 
beneath  the  cumulo-stratus  of  a  belt  of  showers,  and  so  did  the 
New  Brunswick  Tornado,  which  occurred  in  1838.  Many  others 
might  be  mentioned,  but  these  are  sufficient  upon  the  point. 

M.  Peltier,  in  his  elaborate  work  upon  Spouts  and  Tornadoes, 
has  a  list  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven,  of  which  ten  are  said 
to  have  occurred  in  a  sky  without  clouds.  None  such  have 
been  described  in  this  country.  And  of  the  ten  exceptional  cases 
mentioned  by  Peltier,  some  were  mere  whirlpillars,  and  in  the 
other  cases  there  was  a  cumulo-stratus  beneath  which  the  spout 
formed,  and  which  was  taken  by  the  observer  to  constitute  a  part 
of  the  spout. 

As  the  tornado  and  water  spout  form  at  the  inferior  surface  of 
rain-bearing  stratus  clouds  of  considerable  or  very  great  extent, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  311 

more  than  one  may  form  simultaneously  or  during  the  same  day. 
Many  of  these  described  by  M.  Peltier,  so  occurred,  and  there 
have  been  many  such  in  this  country.  Thus,  the  Brandon  tor- 
nado, which  has  been  alluded  to,  was  one  of  several  which  oc- 
curred on  the  same  day  in  different  places,  and  under  the  same 
storm. 

As  this  tornado  occurred  in  January,  during  a  thaw,  and  in  a 
storm  which  extended  somewhat  above  the  focal  path,  I  take  a 
few  extracts  from  Prof.  I.  N.  Stoddard's  very  intelligent  descrip- 
tion of  it. 

"  The  whole  breadth  of  the  State  of  Ohio  from  S.W.  to  N.E., 
was  swept  on  the  20th  of  January,  1854,  by  a  storm  of  unusual 
violence." 

<k  Traces  of  the  same  storm  have  been  obtained  from  a  point 
27  miles  N.E.  of  Little  Rock,  Arkansas ;  also  from  the  Western 
part  of  Pennsylvania.  The  whole  length  cannot  be  less  than  800 
miles.  The  breadth  I  have  not  been  able  to  determine.  At 
Dubuque,  Iowa,  on  the  20th  of  January,  it  was  clear  and  very 
cold,  with  the  wind  from  the  N.W.  At  the  point  named  in  Ar- 
kansas, heavy  rains  from  the  S.W.  occurred  on  the  19th,  followed 
by  a  clear  and  cold  atmosphere  on  the  morning  of  the  20th.  On 
this  day,  the  20th,  the  storm  passed  over  Ohio." 

"  The  temperature  became  mild  on  the  19th,  and  on  the  next 
day  at  noon,  the  thermometer  stood  at  70°  in  Cincinnati,  and  68° 
in  Oxford,  the  latter  place  more  elevated  than  Cincinnati,  and  30 
miles  from  it  N.  by  W.  The  barometer  fell  gradually  during  the 
19th,  and  rapidly  on  the  20th  ;  and  at  45  minutes  past  12  M.,  the 
time  when  the  storm  began  at  Oxford,  it  stood  28.21,  lower  than 
at  any  period  during  the  last  twelve  months.  The  air  was  sat- 
urated with  vapor,  and  the  walls  of  brick  buildings  were  dripping 
with  moisture.  Three  strafa  of  clouds  were  distinctly  observed, 
the  highest  cirri  light  and  fleecy,  moving  toward  the  N.E.,  the 
second,  the  proper  storm  cloud,  in  dark,  heavy  masses,  moving 
rapidly  in  the  same  direction,  the  third  and  lowest  the  scud  of 
sailors,  flitting  violently  past  a  little  east  of  north.  Along  the 


312  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

track  of  this  wind,  there  were  at  different  times  during  the  day 
violent  rains,  vivid  lightning,  heavy  thunder,  and  in  some  places, 
large  hailstones  fell  though  not  in  great  quantity.  In  the  North- 
eastern part  of  the  state,  the  storrn  assumed  the  form  of  a  tornado 
of  great  violence." 

"  It  first  struck  the  earth  in  the  S.W.  part  of  Miller  Township, 
Knox  County.  N.  latitude  40°  18',  Long.  5°  30'  W.  of  Wash- 
ington." 

"Its  course  in  that  County  was  N.  5Gj  Ea:t.  Traces  of  it 
are  found  in  some  of  the  counties  further  east,  where  its  path 
gradually  curved  more  towards  the  ea-t,  presenting  its  convex  side 
to  the  north.  The  tornado  in  Washington  County,  Penn.,  on 
the  same  day,  was  not  probably  a  continuation  of  that  in  Ohio,  as 
its  location  was  several  miles  farther  south. 

"  It  appears  to  have  passed  over  one  tier  of  counties,  without 
touching  the  earth,  and  subsequently  to  have  descended  again 
with  its  original  force." 

Such  is  the  description,  and  the  reader  is  requested  to  notice 
in  passing,  certain  facts  particularly  in  relation  to  this  general 
storm,  for  I  shall  allude  to  them  again. 

1st.  That  this  was  a  winter  thaw,  extending  somewhat  above 
the  focal  path,  but  not  as  far  to  the  N.W.  as  Dubuque,  Iowa. 
Its  heaviest  rains  ranged  from  Arkansas  on  the  19th  to  the  N.E. 
and  in  Ohio  on  the  20th. 

2d.  The  temperature  where  the  tornado  occurred  was  68°. 
The  barometer  fell  about  an  inch  below  the  mean  of  the  place, 
before  the  storm. 

3d.  The  three  cloud  strata  of  the  general  storm  under  which 
it  occurred,  were  distinctly  observed.  The  cirrus  in  the  upper 
story ;  dark,  heavy  masses  of  stratus  and  cumulo-stratus  in  the 
second  story,  and  the  southerly  scud  in  the  surface  story  moving 
from  the  S.  to  a  little  E.  of  N.  Note  carefully  the  strata  as  shown 
by  the  following  diagram. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    41. 


313 


II.  SECOND,  AS  TO  THE  MANNER  OF  FORMATION  AND  FORM. 
Those  have  been  frequently  and  sufficiently  observed.  A  few 
descriptions  are  all  that  our  limits  permit.  Towards  the  end  of 
August,  1838,  about  3  P.  M.,  a  tornado  passed  near  Providence, 
Rhode  Island.  The  rain  was  falling,  says  Mr.  Z.  Allen,  in  a 
letter  to  Prof.  Hare,  with  violence,  when  he  saw  a  black  cloud 
(cumulo-stratus)  in  the  midst  of  other  brilliant  and  fleecy  clouds, 
assume  a  terrible  aspect  and  form  itself  into  a  black,  elongated 
cone,  extending  down  to  the  surface  of  the  earth." 

The  following  is  a  description  condensed  from  an  account  by 
Mr.  C.  F.  Brooks  of  the  Medford,  Mass.,  tornado. 

A  very  distinct  "  form  "  was  exhibited  by  the  cloud  in  this  case, 


314  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

usually  that  of  an  inverted  cone,  though  often  that  of  a  double 
cone  or  hour  glass.  Several  "  concur  in  saying  that  the  conical 
point  let  down  from  the  cloud  moved  about  at  short  distances,  now 
pushing  down  to  the  earth,  and  now  rising  from  it.  Its  side 
motions  were  compared  to  those  of  an  elephant's  trunk.  This 
action  was  like  the  descending  tube  in  a  nearly  completed  water- 
spout at  sea."  Its  width  was  from  50  to  70  rods,  its  course  from 
W.S.W.  to  E  N.E.,  curving  slightly,  its  rate  of  motion  nearly 
«*  fifty  miles  per  hour,"  duration  "  five  or  six  seconds." 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  Schuyler  tornado,  as, 
observed  by  Dr.  Mower. 

"  At  Schuyler  Corners  the  phenomena  was  very  intelligently 
and  carefully  obse  ved  by  Dr.  Mower.  He  as  well  as  others  saw 
it  first  nearly  north  of  the  Corners,  but  a  little  west,  then  pre- 
senting the  appearance  of  a  huge  cone,  apex  down,  suspended  by 
its  base/ro?w  the  cloud,  its  lower  point  apparently  twenty  or  thirty 
rods  above  the  earth,  and  not  more  than  forty  rods  from  their 
position  to  a  point  directly  under  it.  It  passed  on  to  the  east, 
lengthening  as  it  went.  Having  passed  out  of  sight  from  an  inter- 
vening house,  he  changed  his  position  for  a  moment  to  gain  a  new 
view,  and  when  he  again  saw  it,  it  had  touched  the  earth.  Its 
course  was  now  attended  with  a  huge  cloud  of  dust,  and  he  could 
no  more  see  the  apex  of  it.  At  one  time  it  swelled  out  in  the 
middle,  forming  as  it  were,  two  cones,  base  to  base,  the  apices 
above  and  below,  and  a  smaller  and  similar  cone,  separated  from 
it  towards  the  south  ;  this  second  phenomena  was  traced  by  its 
progress  upon  the  earth  as  noticed  further  on.  He  says  he  saw 
it  ten  minutes  and  it  seemed  to  pass  slowly  along.  It  first  struck 
the  ground  just  back  of  the  little  hamlet  of  Schuyler  Corners." 

And  the  following  of  Water  Spouts  as  seen  over  the  Gulf 
Stream  extracted  from  a  description  in  Espy's  Philosophy  of  storms 
page  346. 

"AT  SEA,  AUGUST  14th,  1836." 

"  Captain !  Spouts  over  the  lee  bow  !  cried  the  voice  of  a 
sailor  down  the  companion  ladder,  yesterday  at  2  P.  M.,  while 
sailing  along  the  Gulf  Stream,  in  about  latitude  25°  30'. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  315 

The  cry  of  "  Spouts  over  the  lee  bow  "  naturally  excited  some 
little  alarm  among  the  passengers.  The  Captain  was  on  deck  in 
a  moment.  I  was  anxious  to  witness  the  magnificent  phenomena, 
and  therefore  followed  him.  On  our  arrival  there,  the  spectacle 
presented  by  the  heavens  to  leeward,  was  indeed  of  an  imposing 
and  awful  character.  A  dark  cloud,  which  every  moment  be- 
came blacker  and  blacker,  was  fast  extending  over  the  leeward 
sky.  From  the  lower  part  of  this  ominous  and  stormy  curtain, 
projected  three  jet  black  columns,  which  kept  curving  and  swing- 
ing backwards  and  forwards  as  if  they  were  endowed  with  life. 
******* 

"  Brace  round  the  yards  !  come,  be  quick  !  Haul  aft  and  load 
the  gun,  some  hands,"  cried  the  Captain,  while  he  himself  assisted 
in  performing  these  important  services.  Every  second  was  of 
consequence,  a  minute  or  so  might  have  sealed  our  doom.  On, 
on,  went  the  ship ;  and  before  she  turned,  we  were  frightfully 
near  the  dreadful  spouts.  Onward  and  downward  these  gigan- 
tic hose  pipes  of  cloud  and  water  uncoiled.  Now  they  curved 
like  a  reaper's  hook.  Anon,  they  twisted  like  a  serpent's  tail ! 
I  could  imagine  that  two  of  them  were  at  least  a  thousand  feet  in 
length,  with  a  body  as  thick  as  the  Washington  Monument  at 
Baltimore.  Their  contortions  and  convulsions  were  interesting 
and  wonderful,  and  I  found  it  impossible  to  withdraw  my  atten- 
tion, even  for  a  moment,  from  the  grand  phenomena ;  at  length  the 
ship  was  put  about,  and  we  began  to  increase  our  distance  from 
what  we  had  regarded  as  a  watery  death.  The  spouts  straight- 
ened out,  and  the  lower  ends  of  two  of  them  approached  the  sur- 
face of  the  deep.  The  sea  beneath  rose  in  a  hillock  of  waves, 
as  if  attracted  or  twisted  into  a  rising  tumulous  by  the  cloud,  or 
formed  by  the  whirlwind.  And  now  two  of  the  columns  were 
perpendicular,  resting  upon  a  mount  of  foaming,  roaring  waves — 
a  perfect 

"  Hell  of  waters." 

I  should  say  that  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
feet  above  the  sea,  these  columns  were  transparent  as  crystal,  and 
the  water  might  be  seen  swiftly  traveling  up  them.  This  ap- 


316  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

pearance  lasted  for  six  minutes  and  a  half,  the  third  spout  nev^r 
reaching  the  sea  at  all" 

A  single  extract  from  Peltier,  descriptive  of  the  formation  and 
character  of  a  tornado  which  occurred  at  Chatenay,  near  Paris, 
will  be  sufficient  on  this  point.  The  day  was  cloudy  and  the  de- 
scription of  weather  was  that  of  a  summer  belt  of  showers.  A 
sort  of  combat  is  described  as  having  taken  place  between  two 
showers.  It  is  then  added  : 

"  A  great  agitation  then  manifested  itself  in  the  intermediate 
parts,  and  the  thunder  rolled  violently,  when  all  at  once,  the 
clouds  of  the  second  storm  lowered  themselves  toward  the  earth,  and 
put  themselves  in  communication  with  it.  At  this  instant  the 
thunder  appeared  to  cease,  and  there  arose  a  frightful  whirlwind 
of  dust  and  light  bodies,  with  an  extraordinary,  confused  rolling." 
*  *  *  *  *  *  # 

"  Arrived  at  the  Croix  du  Freche,  the  descendent  cloud  had 
great  dimensions  ;  it  was  then  a  terrestrial  spout,  well  formed, 
which,  according  to  the  account  of  several  inhabitants  of  Fon- 
tenay,  had  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone,  having  its  base  in  the 
upper  clouds,  and  its  apex,  about  seven  metres  from  the  earth. 
The  vapors  which  composed  it  had  a  grey  tint,  and  rolled  one  on 
the  other  with  great  impetuosity,  letting  some  points  of  their  pale 
light  be  seen,  and  causing  a  confused  rolling  to  be  heard." 

Many  other  similar  citations  might  be  made,  but  these  are  suf- 
ficient upon  the  point.  Let  its  manner  of  formation  at  the  infe- 
rior surface  of  the  stratus  clouds  of  the  second  story,  its  exten- 
sion or  elongation  downwards  to  the  earth,  its  subsequent  alter- 
nating elevations  and  suspension  above  the  earth,  and  the  fact 
which  may  be  added,  that  when  it  breaks  up  action  ceases  first  at 
the  earth  and  last  at  the  cloud — be  particularly  noted  and  re- 
membered. 

III.  Let  us  look  now,  in  the  third  place,  at  THE  APPEARANCE 
AND  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION.  These  are  variously 
described  by  different  observers.  Its  form  is  uniformly  described 
as  that  of  an  inverted  or  funnel-shaped  cone,  when  it  has  been 
narrow  (less  than  a  hundred  rods)  and  distinct.  When,  however, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  317 

the  breadth  has  been  much  greater,  the  conical  shape  has  not 
been  so  observable. 

In  color  and  substance  it  differs  from  ordinary  cloud,  and  this 
is  important.  Of  the  Charleston  tornado  it  is  said  that  *•  it  ex- 
hibited the  lurid  appearance,  and  funnel-shape  peculiar  to  these 
tornadoes,  shifting  its  position  very  much." 

An  abridged  description  of  that  which  occurred  at  New  Har- 
mony, Indiana,  April  30th,  1852,  is  as  follows: 

"  This  is  traced  from  near  Paducah,  Kentucky,  northeast  of 
New  Harmony,  and  from  that  point  200  miles  nearly  east  to 
Georgetown,  Ky ,  apparently  following  the  general  line  of  the 
Ohio  river.  The  day  was  generally  cloudy  and  threatening,  with 
a  low  barometer — the  tornado  occurred  at  4|  P.  M.  At  its  point 
near  New  Harmony,  the  track  of  fallen  trees  was  one-half  a  mile 
to  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  the  rate  of  progress  calculated  at  nearly 
60  miles  per  hour.  The  destruction  was  the  work  of  a  moment, 
and  intense  electrical  energy  was  apparent,  an  observer  says : 
'•  the  cloud  appeared  on  Jire  at  the  bottom,  like  a  large  pile  of  burn- 
ing brush,"  others  describe  it  as  "  a  cloud  with  creen  and  red 
flame,'"  others  "green  and  blue" 

Mr.  Stoddard  describes  that  which  occurred  at  Brandon,  as 
follows  : 

"  Persons  just  outside  the  path  describe  the  storm  as  a  column 
of  vapor  or  smoke  whirling  in  indescribable  confusion,  accompa- 
nied with  a  deafening  roar,  so  that  the  thunder,  if  any,  was  undis- 
tinguishable  amid  the  general  din  and  confusion." 

He  also  describes  the  one  which  occurred  at  Harrison,  Ohio, 
as  follows : 

"  The  storm  approached  the  house  nearly  from  the  west,  and 
yet  it  was  struck  on  the  eastern  side,  by  the  current  from  the 
southeast.  The  proof  of  this  is  explicit.  The  whirling  mass  of 
vapor,  attended  with  a  thundering  roar,  w^as  seen  by  Mr.  Graham, 
approaching  from  the  west ;  he  shut  the  door,  a  few  moments  of 
awful  suspense  followed,  then  a  window  over  the  east  door  was 
driven  in  with  a  loud  report,  then  the  door  followed,  and  the  next 


318  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

instant  the  house  was  torn  from  its  foundations  and  shivered  to 
fragments." 

Prof.  Olmsted  thus  speaks  of  the  New  Haven  tornado : 

"  The  appearance  of  the  storm  as  it  approached  was  deliber- 
ately contemplated  by  numerous  observers,  who  saw  it  coming 
over  the  plain.  All  describe  it  as  a  strange  cloud  of  terrific  as- 
pect, wldte  like  a  driving  snow-storm,  or  light  fog,  and  agitated  by 
the  most  violent  intestine  motions.  It  came  suddenly  upon  them 
with  torrents  of  water,  there  was  a  rush,  a  crash,  and  it  was 
gone." 

Prof.  Loomis,  in  an  article  on  the  Mayfield  tornado,  which  oc- 
curred Feb.  24th,  1842,  says  : 

"  Mr.  Halsey  Gates,  standing  near  his  mills  in  a  shed  open  to 
the  north,  saw  the  tornado  pass  and  observed  it  very  attentively. 
The  entire  heavens,  he  says,  were  covered  with"  dense,  black 
clouds,  moving  with  great  rapidity.  No  cloud  seemed  to  descend 
to  the  earth,  yet  the  progress  of  the  tornado  was  marked  by  a 
huge  column  of  a  dull  yellow  or  smoky  tinge" 

And  in  the  same  article  he  thus  alludes  to  two  which  have  oc- 
curred in  the  night. 

"  The  tornado  at  Morgan,  in  1823,  is  thus  described  by  Deacon 
Beach.  About  8  o'clock  the  sky  became  overcast  with  a  daik 
cloud,  attended  with  plentiful  rain  and  some  lightning.  The  rain 
suddenly  ceased,  but  the  cloud  remained,  covering  the  whole  heav- 
ens, and  producing  intense  darkness.  The  air  was  perfectly  still, 
after  the  rain,  for  about  an  hour,  and  the  heat  unusually  great. 
At  half  past  9,  he  heard  a  roaring,  as  of  very  heavy  thunder, 
which  called  him  to  the  door.  Upon  opening  it  he  immediately 
discovered  a  bright  cloud,  having  precisely  the  color  of  a  glowing 
oven,  apparently  of  the  size  of  half  an  acre  of  ground,  lower  than 
the  dark  canopy  which  remained  unbroken  above,  apparently 
within  two  or  three  miles,  and  moving  rapidly  in  the  direction  of 
his  house.  The  brightness  of  the  cloud  made  the  face  of  things 
light  above  the  brightness  of  the  full  moon.  Having  turned  into 
the  house  he  was  engaged  in  securing  it,  when  the  tornado  passed, 
taking  the  roof  and  chamber  floor,  and  many  articles  from  below. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  319 

It  was  a  log  house.  There  was  neither  hail  nor  rain  during  the 
passage  of  the  tornado,  neither  flashes  of  lightning  nor  distin- 
guishable peals  of  thunder,  but  an  intense  brightness  of  the  cloud 
and  a  continual  and  tremendous  roar.  The  passage  of  the  torna- 
do seemed  instantaneous,  but  the  light  of  the  cloud  continued 
for  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Deacon  B.  was  able  to  read 
in  his  Bible,  which  he  found  many  rods  from  his  house,  at  least 
ten  minu'es  after  the  storm  had  passed. 

"Judge  Griswold  saw  the  same  phenomenon.  The  cloud  ap- 
peared to  him  funnel-shaped,  apex  downward,  from  which  a  stream 
of  fire  apparently  issued. 

"The  appearance  of  the  cloud,  as  here  described,  corresponds 
very  well  with  the  account  of  the  Shelbyville  tornado,  as  given 
in  this  Journal,  (Vol.  xxxi,  page  258.)  The  cloud  is  said  to  have 
been  permanently  luminous,  and  of  the  color  of  red  hot  iron." 

Of  a  list  of  fifty  or  more  which  have  occurred  in  this  country, 
I  know  of  no  other  which  occurred  at  night  except  that  at  Stowe, 
and  that  was  not  observed.  It  is  an  important  fact  that  fifteen 
out  of  sixteen  have  occurred  in  the  day  time,  and  in  the  afternoon. 
And  this  was  generally  true  of  the  great  number  described  by 
M.  Peltier,  but  it  cannot  be  necessary  to  cite  other  instances  from 
our  own  records  or  from  him.  Those  given  are  amply  sufficient 
to  exhibit  the  character  of  the  organization,  in  relation  to  form, 
color,  and  substance.  If  all  occurred  in  the  night  all  would 
doubtless  be  luminous. 

IV.  APPARENT  MANNER  OF  ACTION.     Enough  has  been  cited 
to  show  its  apparent  manner  of  action  before  coming  in  contact 
with  the  earth  or  when  the   contact  was  broken  by  contraction, 
and  the   apex  was  drawn  up  above  it.     All  observers  seem  to 
agree  in  the  fact  that  when  occupying  that  position  above  the 
earth,  there  was  a  whirling  motion  distinctly  visible,  and  the  apex 
or  extremity  shifted  about  in  every  direction  from  a  perpendicular 
line. 

V.  We  come  now  to  its   ACTION  AND  MODE  OF  OPERATION 
AVHEN  IN  CONTACT  WITH  THE  EARTH,  and  here  we  can  learn  but 
little    from  actual   observation   of  its  movements    at    the    time. 


320  TEIE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

First,  because  dust,  dirt,  water,  mud,  and  everything  movable, 
including  limbs  of  trees,  leaves,  parts  of  buildings  and  other  ob- 
jects detached  and  torn  to  pieces  by  its  force,  were  embraced  in 
it,  exhibiting  to  the  eye  intense  internal  agitation,  and  apparent 
indescribable  confusion.  Second,  because  the  apex  of  the  spout 
undoubtedly  whisks  about  at  times  in  various  directions  while  in 
contact  with  the  earth,  thereby  creating  much  of  the  apparent 
confusion  observable  in  its  effects.  Third,  because  it  varies  in 
form  and  extent,  and  its  lateral  motions  are  more  or  less  masked 
where  the  breadth  is  considerable  and  the  progress  rapid.  Fourth, 
because  the  force  is  exerted  in  veins  irregularly,  sometimes  with 
enormous  energy,  and  at  the  next  instant  feebly.  Thus,  where 
two  buildings  have  stood  near  each  other,  and  eqtii-distant  from 
the  center  of  the  path,  one  has  been  destroyed  while  the  other 
remained  uninjured.  And  so  also,  of  light  objects  easily  moved, 
some  have  been  carried  away  and  never  found,  while  others  situ- 
ated near  by  have  been  left  undisturbed.  We  must  endeavor 
then  to  discover  their  mode  of  operation  at  the  suiface  of  the 
earth,  and  when  in  contact,  by  analyzing  their  effects  in  cases 
where  the  cone  and  path  were  narrow,  and  at  points  where  there 
was  the  least  apparent  deviation  of  the  apex  from  a  straight  line, 
or  other  irregularity  as  it  passed  along. 

Several  of  that  precise  character  have  been  reliably  described. 
That  which  occurred  near  New  Haven,  is  one  of  them.  It  was 
carefully  examined  and  charted  by  Prof.  Olmsted,  and  Mr  Haile. 
Their  chart  embraced  four  different  sections.  I  copied  and  insert  - 
ed  a  part  of  one  of  the  sections  on  page  79.  I  also  copy  and 
insert  as  much  of  the  rest  of  his  chart  as  the  smaller  size  of 
my  page  will  permit. 

The  following  is  Prof.  O.'s  description  of  the  effects  observed 
in  connection  with  the  chart. 

"  Let  us  now  trace  more  particularly  those  facts  which  have  a 
bearing  upon  the  laws  which  govern  this  storm. 

1.  The  first  great  fact  that  strikes  us  is,  that  all  the  trees  and 
other  objects  that  mark  the  direction  of  the  wind  which  prostrated 
them  are,  with  very  few  exceptions,  turned  inwards  on  both  side?, 


THE    ATMOSPilEBIC    SYSTEM. 


321 


Section  II. 


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FIG.  42. 

I    T 


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Section  I. 


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Seeiion.  TV. 


Section  ]ff. 


15 


822  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

towards  the  center  of  the  track,  while  near  the  center,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  prostrate  bodies  is  coincident  with  that  of  the  storm. 

2.  On  more  minute  inspection,  we  find  prevailing  a  remarkable 
law  of  curvature.     This  is  most  favorably  seen  in  cornfields,  as 
the  prostrate  corn  indicates  the  course  of  the  wind  at  each  spot, 
with  great   precision.     The  law  is   this.     Commencing  on  the 
northern  margin  of  the  track,  the  stalks  of  corn  are  turned  back- 
ward, that  is,  towards  the  S.E.,  proceeding  towards  the  center  of 
the  track,  their   inclination  to  the   south  becomes  constantly  less 
and  less,  turning  gradually  towards  the  course  of  the  storm,  until 
when  we  reach  the  center  they  lie  to  the  N.E.  exactly  in  the  line 
of  the  storm.     This  curvature  is  in  all  cases  more  observable  on 
the  northern  than  on  the  southern  side  of  the  track.     In  the  lat- 
ter case  the  stalks  of  corn  lie  more  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the 
course  of  the  storm  (but  inclining  forward,)  still,  on  reaching  the 
center,  they  turn  to  the  northeast  and  become  coincident  with  that 
course, 

3.  Numerous  examples  are  seen  where  the  bodies  as  they  fell 
toward  the  center  of  the  track,  or  after  they  had  fallen,  were 
turned  farther  round  towards  the  direction  in  which  the  tornado 
was  moving,  that  is  towards  the  N.E. 

4.  The  ruins  of  buildings  that  were  demolished,  are  scattered 
in  nearly  a  right  line  towards  the  center  of  the  track,  but  they 
frequently  are  strewed  quite  across  the  central  parts,  reaching, 
in  some  instances   almost  to  the  opposite   margin.     In  this  case 
they  are  often  found  covered  with  trees  and  other  bodies  lying  in 
precisely  the  opposite  direction. 

5.  In  a  few  instances,  very  limited  spots  are  found  where  the 
prostrate  bodies,  as  hills  of  corn,  lie  in  all  directions.     Examples 
occur  where  one  portion  of  the  same  hill  of  corn  is  turned  west- 
ward, and  another  portion  eastward. 

After  these  general  statements  we  may  now  have  recourse  to 
the  accompanying  diagram,  and  review  particular  cases  of  the 
foregoing  laws  or  modes  of  action.  For  this  representation  of 
the  phenomena  of  the  tornado,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  B. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  323 

Haile,  who  took  the  bearings  of  the  various  prostrate  objects  with 
a  compass.  In  most  cases,  I  have  been  able  to  attest  the  accu- 
racy of  the  representations  by  actual  inspection,  and  in  regard  to 
the  few  instances  where  my  attention  has  not  been  particularly 
attracted  to  the  fact  represented,  I  entertain  no  doubt  of  the  en- 
tire accuracy  of  the  delineation. 

The  diagram  commences  at  A,  (not  copied,)  at  a  mulberry 
grove,  half  a  mile  from  the  spot  where  the  tornado  first  formed. 
The  dotted  line  bears  N.  50°  E.  It  will  be  perceived  that  the 
trees  which  lie  in  the  center  of  the  track  generally  coincide  with 
it,  and  that  those  which  lie  on  either  side,  are  turned  inwards 
towards  the  center.  Yet  several  examples  are  seen  where  trees 
lie  pointing  outward  from  the  center,  both  in  the  middle  and  in 
the  marginal  portions  of  the  track,  as  at  N,  Q,  R,  S.  These  ex- 
ceptions, moreover,  are  all  on  the  north  side  of  the  track.  Ex- 
amples of  the  remarkable  law  of  curvature  referred  to,  as  seen  at 
G  and  O,  (see  page  79,)  where  the  figures  represent  the  direction 
of  stalks  of  corn,  in  two  fields  nearly  a  mile  distant  from  each 
other.  It  will  be  observed  from  the  diagram  that  from  the  mar- 
gin, the  direction  of  the  stalks  inclines  more  and  more  inwards, 
and  finally  in  the  center,  coincides  with  the  course  of  the  storm. 
It  is  also  obvious  from  the  figure  that  this  law  is  more  fully  de- 
veloped on  the  left  than  on  the  right  side  of  the  track.  The  same 
tendency  to  this  curve  is  exhibited  in  the  scattered  fragments  of  a 
roof  at  I. 

The  dotted  lines  connected  with  the  figures  of  some  of  the 
bodies  that  were  thrown  down,  as  at  B,  D,  and  F,  show  the  posi- 
tion in  which  the  bodies  first  fell,  and  from  which  they  were  moved 
round  into  the  places  they  now  occupy.  In  some  cases  a  tree  is 
seen  to  have  commenced  falling  at  right  angles  to  the  track,  but 
during  its  fall  to  have  been  twisted  round  towards  the  course  of 
the  storm.  Similar  examples  are  found  of  limbs  bent  around  the 
trunks  of  the  trees  from  which  they  were  partially  severed. 

At  E  are  represented  the  ruins  of  a  building  which  was  com- 
pletely demolished,  and  its  fragments  carried  in  a  right  line  far  be- 
yond the  center  of  the  track.  According  to  Mr.  Haile,  the  frag- 


324  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ments  in  the  central  parts  of  the  track  are  arranged  in  parallel 
lines,  coinciding  with  the  course  of  the  storm,  while  in  places 
farther  from  the  center,  they  lie  promiscuously.  In  the  parts  most 
remote  from  the  building,  the  fragments  are  covered  by  corn 
thrown  down  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  more  striking  exam- 
ple of  the  same  fact  is  seen  near  the  eastern  limits  of  the  tornado, 
where  the  fragments  of  a  roof  are  scattered  towards  the  west, 
while  a  tree  a  few  paces  from  the  building  is  turned  directly 
towards  the  building,  covering  a  portion  of  the  fragments. 

At  C  is  represented  a  limited  spot  in  a  cornfield  where  the 
stalks  lie  in  every  direction.  While  in  a  few  places,  at  distant 
points,  particular  spots  seem  to  have  been  subjected  to  a  pecu- 
liar violence,  other  limited  spots  exhibit  a  remarkable  exemption 
from  the  effects  of  the  tornado.  In  a  garden  near  H  are  a  few 
rows  of  pole  beans,  apparently  untouched  by  the  storm,  while 
within  a  few  feet  on  either  hand,  the  most  violent  effects  are  ex- 
hibited. Near  L  a  barn  was  demolished,  and  a  dovecote  scat- 
tered in  fragments,  while  a  hen-roost  which  stood  feebly  on  blocks 
was  unharmed.  Large  trees  in  the  immediate  vicinity  were  torn 
up  by  the  roots.  A  house  that  stood  between  I  and  L,  was  com- 
pletely torn  in  pieces,  leaving  nothing  but  the  southern  half  of  the 
ground  floor.  In  the  room  of  this  floor,  a  woman  was  washing, 
and  another  was  at  work  in  a  basement  room  immediately  below, 
while  her  child  was  asleep  in  a  cradle  in  a  room  above,  at  the 
northeast  angle  of  the  house.  They  saw  the  tornado  approach- 
ing ;  the  woman  in  the  basement  ran  up  and  caught  her  child  in 
her  arms,  and  immediately  afterwards  found  herself  and  child  in 
an  open  field  a  few  paces  north  of  the  house,  the  child  having  been 
carried  only  a  few  feet  from  the  spot  where  they  were,  while  the 
mother  was  carried  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  farther  to  the  west- 
ward. The  other  woman  meanwhile  was  swept  off  from  the  floor 
where  she  was  standing,  and  carried  northward  and  deposited  in 
the  cellar,  the  floor  of  the  northern  half  of  the  house  having  been 
borne  away  along  with  other  parts  of  the  building.  None  of  the 
persons  were  seriously  injured." 

I  refer  next  to  the  description,  from  which  I  have  already  cop- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


325 


led,  of  the  Brandon  tornado,  by  Prof.  Stoddard.  The  following 
are  Sections  II  and  III,  taken  from  his  chart,  showing  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  trees  were  prostrated  where  the  tornado  entered 
successively  two  different  standing  forests.  A  more  favorable  op- 
portunity for  the  exhibition  of  the  precise  manner  in  which  the 
force  was  exerted  could  not  well  exist,  the  tornado  crossing  cleared 
fields  and  striking  perpendicularly  into  a  forest  which  stood  upon 
rising  ground. 


FIG.  43. 


SECTION  II. 


SECTION  III. 

After  describing  the  effects  of  the  tornado  upon  the  village  of 
Brandon,  he  describes  the  place  where  Sections  II  and  III  were 
surveyed,  as  follows : 

"  About  one-fourth  of  a  mile  east  of  Brandon  it  struck  a  dense 
forest.  At  this  point  a  careful  survey  was  made  across  the  track 
represented  by  Section  II.  For  nearly  three  miles  its  course  was 
mainly  through  the  forest,  with  intervals  of  cleared  land,  uproot- 
ing or  breaking  almost  every  tree,  and  crushing  the  buildings 
which  unfortunately  stood  in  its  way.  Crossing  the  Newark  and 
Mt.  Vernon  railroad,  it  swept  over  cultivated  fields,  destroying 
the  few  trees  which  had  been  left,  and  razing  to  the  ground  a 
stable  and  brick  house.  Three-fourths  of  a  mile  beyond  this,  an 
open  grove  of  very  large  trees,  mostly  oak,  stood  on  rising  ground 
and  in  the  line  of  the  storm's  axis.  They  seemed  like  an  advanced 
guard,  to  the  forest  a  little  farther  in  advance.  The  tornado 
struck  them  with  appalling  fury,  and  appeared  well-nigh  irresist- 
ible. Scarcely  one  was  left  standing,  some  were  uprooted,  others 
broken  and  split  into  fragments.  Near  this  place  where  it  en- 
tered the  forest  another  survey  was  made,  (see  Sec.  III.) 


326 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


I  take  next  two  sections  of  the  chart  of  the  Harrison  tornado, 
also  surveyed,  charted,  and  described  by  Prof.  Stodard. 

FIG.  44. 


Section  B  is  a  chart  of  the  Graham  place,  which  the  tornado 
demolished.  The  topography  of  the  ground  was  peculiar,  and 
the  effects  do  not  precisely  correspond  with  those  produced  in 
other  parts  of  the  path.  The  curvature  of  the  right  hand  lateral 
currents,  was  nearer  the  axis  than  in  other  portions  of  its  path, 
and  the  house  and  barn,  No.  1  and  2,  were  stricken  by  them  on 
the  east  side  and  the  fragments  carried  in  the  direction  of  the 
dotted  lines.  But  the  distinct  and  peculiar  operation  of  the  lat- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  327 

eral  currents,  and  particularly  those  upon  the  north  side,  are 
clearly  observable. 

In  Section  C,  where  the  currents  struck  the  edge  of  a  forest,  the 
action  of  the  lateral  currents,  and  especially  those  which  crossed 
on  to  .he  north  side,  is  distinctly  shown. 

We  come  next  to  a  consideration  of  the  most  violent  effects 
produced,  and  the  measure  of  the  force  required  to  produce  them. 
I  take  fir  ->t,  an  extract  from  the  description  of  the  Schuyler 
tornado  which  has  been  alluded  to. 

"  But  the  climax  of  the  storm  is  yet  to  be  seen.  About  three 
hundred  feet  directly  southeast  of  the  apple  trees,  upon  an  abrupt 
eminence,  say  thirty  feet  high,  there  stood  a  first-class  farmer's 
barn,  thirty  five  by  fifty  feet  with  a  stone  foundation,  and  with 
posts  sixteen  feet  high.  Its  length  was  east  and  west,  and  its 
roof  sloped  towards  the  north  and  towards  the  south.  The  south 
portion  of  the  roof  was  carried  north  over  a  garden  with  fruit 
trees  and  deposited  in  a  field  beyond,  some  portion  200,  some  300, 
and  a  large  portion  at  least  500  or  perhaps  600  feet  from  the  barn, 
while  the  north  side  was  carried  just  about  as  far  towards  the 
south.  A  threshing  machine  of  iron  and  wood,  said  to  weigh 
400  pounds,  was  carried  £30  feet  south-southeast,  and  a  sill  or 
plate  of  the  barn,  weighing  probably  twice  as  much,  lies  near  it, 
while  huge  timbers  are  beyond  it,  one  300  feet  to  the  south,  nine 
inches  square  by  twelve  feet  long.  Thus  for  500  feet  or  more  all 
around  towards  the  north,  east,  and  south  of  this  barn,  lie  its  frag- 
ments, every  timber  and  board  removed  from  the  greater  portion 
of  the  foundation,  and  even  the  two  inch  plank  hemlock  floor  of  the 
basement  of  the  west  end  of  the  barn,  saturated  with  water,  any 
one  of  them  a  load  for  two  men,  were  lifted  up  and  thrown  to- 
t/ether in  a  heap.  This  it  must  be  understood  is  at  the  bottom  of 
the  basement  some  ten  feet  deep,  protected  by  the  stone  foundation 
watt,  as  it  should  seem,  from  the  direct  action  of  the  wind." 

I  copy  next,  the  following  from  Mr.  Stoddard's  description  of 
the  Brandon  tornado : 

"  Another  mode  of  estimating  the  force  of  the  wind  may  be 
adopted.  Among  the  oaks  previously  named  as  standing  on  ris- 


328  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ing  ground,  was  one,  a  giant  among  giants.  Its  trunk  was  three 
feet  in  diameter  and  straight,  its  top  symmetrical,  and  the  whole 
sound  to  the  core.  It  was  shivered  to  fragments,  near  the  ground. 
Let  us  estimate  the  force  necessary  to  break  it.  We  will  call  the 
diameter  2J  feet,  the  height  80  feet,  the  outline  of  the  top  a  rect- 
angle 30  by  40  feet,  and  let  us  suppose  the  whole  surface  exposed 
to  the  wind  to  equal  one-fourth  of  that  included  in  the  outline, 
or  500  square  feet.  Under  these  conditions  the  resultant  of  all 
the  forces  would  act  on  the  tree  at  a  distance  of  55  feet  from 
the  point  of  fracture.  Taking  the  strength  of  oak  at  the  usual 
standard,  a  force  of  73,636  Ibs.  would  be  required  to  break  the 
tree.  If  the  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind  be  esti- 
mated at  500  square  feet,  the  pressure  upon  each  square  foot 
would  be  147  Ibs.  This  gives  a  velocity  of  172.9  miles  per  hour, 
equal  to  253.5  feet  per  second.  This  is  about  one-fourth  the 
velocity  of  a  cannon  ball.  Though  the  above  estimate  gives  an 
enormous  force  to  the  wind,  yet  I  cannot  perceive  that  any  of  the 
assumptions  are  exaggerated.  The  most  doubtful  point  is  the 
amount  of  surface  supposed  to  be  presented  to  the  wind  by  the 
limbs,  &c.  The  estimate  is  believed  to  be  a  large  one,  as  the  trees 
were  at  the  time  destitute  of  foliage. 

Other  circumstances  are  not  wanting  to  sustain  this  view  of  a 
high  rate  of  velocity  in  the  tornado.  A  mass  of  brick  cemented 
together  4  feet  by  3,  and  one  foot  thick,  containing  at  least  12 
cubic  feet,  and  weighing  more  than  1000  Ibs.,  was  carried  15  feet 
from  the  wall  of  a  house.  A  board  was  driven  3  feet  into  a  charred 
oak  stump.  The  writer  pulled  a  shingle  from  an  oak  tree  which 
had  been  driven  into  it  one  inch.  An  estimate  of  the  force  in  the 
aggregate,  of  this  tornado,  if  made  clear  to  the  mind  by  compar- 
ison with  some  well-known  standard,  would  excite  astonishment. 
If  any  one  will  take  the  trouble  to  make  the  calculation,  he  will 
probably  assent  to  the  following :  A  section  of  it  one-half  mile 
wide  and  100  feet  high,  exerted  a  force  equal  to  half  the  steam 
power  of  the  globe.  More  than  50,000  trees  were  prostrated  or 
broken  by  it  in  less  than  one-half  hour." 

And  from  the  same  writer  respecting  the  Harrison  tornado. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  329 

'"  This  storm  was  remarkable  for  the  occasional  exhibitions  of 
extreme  violence.  The  Graham  place  afforded  the  most  striking 
examples.  The  house  was  not  mei  ely  thrown  down,  but  shivered. 
A  teaspoon  was  carried  half  a  mile,  and  a  piece  of  stove  30  rods. 
A  heavy  wagon  was  carried  a  few  rods  and  dashed  to  fragments 
against  a  tree.  A  piece  of  scantling  twelve  feet  long,  and  three 
by  four  inches,  was  taken  thirty  rods  east,  and  driven  into  the 
ground  ihree  and  a  half  feet.  Four  men  tried  in  vain  to  pull  it 
out,  and  the  writer  in  connection  with  Mr.  Graham,  succeeded 
only  after  digging  around  it  to  the  depth  of  3  feet.  The  earth 
thus  penetrated,  was,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  six  inches,  a 
stiff,  yellow  clay.  What  renders  this  incident  more  striking 
was  the  fact  that  the  end  of  the  scantling  was  not  pointed.  The 
cross  section  presented  a  resisting  surface  of  eight  square  inches, 
and  the  whole  amount  of  earth  displaced  was  equal  to  336  cubic 
inches.  According  to  experiments  made  at  the  United  States 
Navy  Yard,  a  shot  68  inches  in  diameter  would  penetrate  earth 
five  feet,  nine  inches.  A  shot  of  3  inches  diameter,  nearly  the 
resisting  surface  of  the  scantling,  would  under  similar  circumstan- 
ces penetrate  three  feet,  nine  inches.  This  is  but  three  inches 
deeper  than  the  scantling  was  driven.  While  the  weight  of  the 
timber  in  question  would  have  been  greater  than  the  weight  of  a 
three  inch  shot,  on  the  other  hand  the  form  of  the  end  was  not  so 
favorable  for  penetration.  What  portion  of  its  velocity  was  due 
to  falling  cannot  be  told  with  accuracy.  As  it  fell  within  thirty 
rods  of  the  building  from  which  it  was  taken,  it  could  not  have 
ascended  to  a  great  height.  It  entered  the  ground  at  about  an 
angle  of  45°,  and  if  from  this  we  estimate  the  velocity  acquired 
from  falling,  to  equal  one-half  of  the  whole,  there  is  still  left  a 
velocity  of  500  feet  per  second,  due  to  the  wind.  The  effects  of 
such  a  wind  would  be  fearful  indeed ;  it  would  move  at  the  rate 
of  340  miles  per  hour.'' 

One  other  extract  will  suffice  in  relation  to  the  power  and  ef- 
fect of  this  class  of  conditions.  It  is  from  Prof.  Loomis'  descrip- 
tion of  the  one  which  occurred  at  Mayfield,  Feb.  1842. 

"The  velocity  of  the  wind's  motion,  however,  at  points  of  the 


330  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

most  destructive  violence,  was  far  greater  than  this  A  tolerable 
idea  of  its  velocity  may  be  gained  from  the  distance  to  which 
light  objects  were  driven  into  the  ground.  Small  pieces  of  clap- 
boards with  square  ends  were  driven  into  turf  land  18  inches,  and 
with  sharp  ends,  two  feet.  What  charge  of  powder  is  capable  of 
producing  the  same  effect  ?  According  to  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
Hutton  a  pound  ball  of  cast  iron  fired  from  a  gun  of  2  inches 
calibre  into  solid  blocks  of  elm  wood,  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres, 
penetrated  the  following  distances  : 

VELOCITY.  PENETRATION. 

With  a  charge  of  2  oz.  powder,      800  feet  per  second.  7  inches. 

"  "      4  "         "  1200         "  "  15       " 

"  "      8  "         "  1500         «  "  20      " 

Dr.  Hutton  estimates  the  resistance  of  elm  timber  7^  times 
more  than  that  of  firm  earth.  A  pound  ball  with  a  velocity  of 
800  feet,  should  then  penetrate  the  earth  51  inches.  The  depth 
penetrated  being  assumed  to  be  as  the  square  of  the  velocity,  a 
pound  ball  fired  with  the  velocity  of  550  feet  would  penetrate  2  4 
inches.  The  space  penetrated  is  said  to  be  as  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  ball.  A  wooden  ball  two  inches  in  diameter,  specific  grav- 
ity 75,  fired  with  a  velocity  of  550  feet,  would  then  penetrate  firm 
earth  24  inches.  As  this  last  result  is  a  deduction  from  princi- 
ples somewhat  doubtful,  I  desire  to  verify  it  by  experiments  of 
my  own.  A  six-pcunler  was  accordingly  charged  with  1^  Ibs.  of 
powder.  Two  or  three  short  pieces  of  oak  board,  three  inches 
wide  and  one  inch  thick,  were  added,  and  the  gun  pointed  toward 
a  steep  hill,  distant  about  a  rod.  The  boards  penetrated  the 
ground  a  few  inches,  were  badly  shivered,  and  bounded  some 
distance  up  the  hill.  A  second  experiment  was  tried  with  nearly 
the  same  result.  The  hill  was  of  usually  firm  earth  but  not 
strong.  The  greatest  penetration  did  not  exceed  six  inches. 
Velocity  computed  1000  feet  per  second.  According  to  the 
former  data,  the  penetration  should  have  been  nearly  8  inches.  But 
the  ground  at  Mayfield  was  saturated  with  water-  I  have  no  pre- 
cise data  for  estimating  the  allowance  required  by  this  circum- 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  331 

stance.  I  judge,  however,  that  it  would  not  increase  the  penetra- 
tion more  than  threefold.  We  arrive  then  at  the  conclusion  that 
the  clapboards  at  Maytield  were  driven  into  the  earth  with  a  ve- 
locity of  1000  feet  per  second,  or  682  miles  per  hour" 

Perhaps  I  ought  not  to  omit  the  fact  alluded  to  in  a  general 
way,  in  a  former  chapter  relative  to  the  ploughing  of  the  ground 
by  the  movement  of  an  iron  plough  during  a  tornado  at  Stowe. 
The  following  is  a  description  of  it  in  Prof.  Loomis'  words : 

u  There  is  another  fact  which  appears  to  my  mind  still  more 
remarkable.  A  very  heavy  cast  iron  plough  was  lying  between 
the  two  houses  C  and  D  ;  a  massive  iron  chain  was  attached  to 
it,  and  there  was  little  wood  work  about  it.  This  plough  was 
dragged  along  about  four  rods  and  ploughed  into  the  ground  in 
several  places.  In  one  spot  it  appears  to  have  been  carried  al- 
most entirely  around,  removing  all  the  turf  from  a  space  about 
four  feet  square,  and  throwing  up  the  earth  to  the  distance  of  six 
feet.  The  plough  was  broken  so  as  to  be  worthless." 

This  fact  is  quite  as  astonishing  as  any  of  the  other  almost 
incredible  facts  contained  in  the  foregoing  extracts. 

A  few  words  in  passing  relative  to  the  places  where  they  occur 
and  their  frequency  An  examination  of  the  many  conditions  of 
this  description  which  have  been  recorded  in  the  newspapers,  as 
well  as  the  forty  or  fifty  which  have  been  described  in  scientific 
books,  or  other  publications,  will  show,  that  although  occurring 
occasionally  over  all  the  eastern  states,  in  the  Atlantic  system  of 
conditions,  nearly  all  have  occurred  at  or  south  of  the  then  loca- 
tion of  the  focal  path.  In  the  two  or  three  cases  mentioned 
where  they  have  occurred  north  of  the  focal  path,  as  at  Brandon 
and  Harrison,  Ohio,  they  have  occurred  during  very  warm  and 
intense  southeast  thaws.  Thus  of  four  which  have  occurred  at, 
or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Natchez,  Mississippi,  all  have  oc- 
curred in  May.  About  the  same  number  which  have  occurred  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  have  occurred  in  the  same  month  or  in 
April.  And  they  have  visited  the  states  north,  northwest,  and 
northeast  of  that  valley  later  in  the  season,  and  in  the  summer 
after  the  focal  path  had  passed  up  over  or  beyond  them.  Under 


332  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

that  focal  path,  or  southerly  of  it,  they  have  occurred  every  year 
since  the  country  was  settled,  and  will  continue  to  occur  while  the 
atmospheric  system  remains  as  now. 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  satisfactorily  the  average  number 
which  have  occurred  in  each  year.  The  forests  of  the  Mississippi 
valley  are  scarred  with  them.  Five  are  known  to  have  occurred 
in  different  states  on  the  15th  of  August,  1787,  and  several 
formed  under  the  same  belt  of  showers  in  which  the  New  Bruns- 
wick tornado  appeared  on  successive  days,  as  the  belt  drifted  to 
the  eastward.  Probably  an  average  of  ten  a  year  would  be  a 
low  estimate.  Some  of  them  have  been  very  destructive  to  hu- 
man life,  and  they  constitute  one  of  the  dangers  of  the  east,  as 
earthquakes  do  to  California,  and  perhaps  the  greater  danger  of 
the  two.  They  do  not  occur  in  the  Pacific  system. 

Their  rate  of  progress  over  the  earth  varies  with  their  size  and 
intensity.  That  described  by  Mr.  Chappelsmith,  which  was 
about  one  mile  in  width,  and  had  a  connection  with  the  earth  for 
240  miles,  moved  with  an  estimated  velocity  of  60  miles  an  hour, 
prostrating  trees  at  the  rate  of  7000  per  minute.  The  progress 
of  the  greater  number  where  the  width  has  been  less  than  100 
rods,  has  been  at  the  rate  of  from  30  to  45  miles  an  hour. 

Let  us  now  review  and  examine  the  facts  thus  stated,  and  de- 
duce from  them  inductively,  the  mode  in  which  the  organizing 
and  sustaining  force  operates,  constituting  the  law  of  the  organ- 
ization. 

Turn  now  first  to  page  81,  and  examine  Prof.  Loomis'  chart  of 
the  effects  produced  by  the  tornado  at  Stow,  Ohio.  We  see  at  a 
glance  by  the  arrangement  of  the  prostrated  trees  that  the  force 
was  exerted  laterally  on  each  side  of  the  supposed  central  line, 
R,  S.  The  general  effect  is  obvious,  and  the  exceptional  cases 
are  few  and  easily  accounted  for.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell 
upon  it.  Prof.  Loomis  sums  it  up  in  the  following  sentence : 

"  We  have  then,  I  think  established  that  there  were  two  pow- 
erful currents  of  wind  blowing  from  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
track ;  that  is,  within  a  few  rods  of  each  other,  and  with  such 
violence  that  the  stoutest  oaks  fell  before  it." 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  333 

Turn  now  to  a  representation  of  a  part  of  the  track  of  the 
New  Haven  tornado,  as  inserted  on  page  79.  Here  we  have  the 
same  result,  as  shown  by  the  manner  in  which  the  corn  was  pros- 
trated in  the  cornfield,  and  by  the  direction  in  which  the  trees 
fell,  and  the  fragments  of  a  building  were  carried  from  the  right 
hand  side  of  the  path.  We  have  also  some  prostrated  trees  on 
the  left  hand  side  of  the  path,  with  their  tops  toward  the  center, 
and  some  trees  also,  and  the  fragments  of  other  buildings  carried 
exceptionally  and  obliquely  outward  to  the  northwest.  It  will  be 
seen  hereafter  that  these  exceptions  are  perfectly  consistent  with 
the  general  effect  we  are  considering. 

Turn  now  to  the  remainder  of  Prof.  Olmsted's  chart,  and  we 
will  commence  with  Section  I.  Here  we  have  first,  on  the  right 
of  the  track  at  the  lower  corner,  the  debris  of  buildings  thrown 
inwards  toward  the  center ;  then  we  have  at  E  the  representa- 
tion of  a  building  destroyed,  and  the  fragments  carried  inwards 
toward  the  center  and  across  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  path ; 
then  we  have  at  F  trees  thrown  inward  and  forward ;  at  G  corn 
prostrated  toward  the  center,  and  further  on,  near  K,  another 
building  destroyed  and  its  fragments  thrown  toward  the  center  of 
the  path.  On  the  left-hand  side  of  the  path,  in  this  section,  we 
see  the  corn  prostrated  toward  the  center,  the  trees  also,  farther 
on,  and  the  contents  of  the  building,  I,  in  like  manner.  The  same 
exhibitions  of  force  are  seen  in  Section  II,  on  either  side  the 
track,  with  the  exception  of  two  trees  thrown  to  the  westward. 
In  Section  III  we  have  the  same  exhibition  with  a  similar  excep- 
tion at  Q.  The  same  may  be  said,  in  a  single  sentence,  of  Sec- 
tion IV. 

Turn  now  to  Sections  II  and  III  of  Prof.  Stoddard's  chart  of 
the  Brandon  tornado.  On  these  we  need  not  dwell ;  they  show 
the  same  operation  of  the  force. 

Turn  next  to  Prof.  Stoddard's  chart  of  the  Harrison  tornado. 
On  Section  B  of  that  chart  we  see  the  same  state  of  things  on 
both  sides  of  the  center,  with  a  curving  of  the  force  at  the  Gra- 
ham place,  where  buildings  1'and  2  were  demolished,  similar  to 


334  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

that  shown  at  Q  of  Prof.  Olmsted's  chart,  and  substantially  the 
same  result  is  also  observable  in  Section  C. 

Without  dwelling  upon  this  very  plain  matter,  we  may  state  as 
our  first  deduced  proposition,  that  the  organization  and  motive  force 
of  the  tornado  operates  in  two  lateral  lines  of  force,  or  currents, 
tending  towards  a  central  line. 

Turn  again  to  the  diagram  of  Prof.  Loomis  on  page  81.  The 
house  of  Mr.  Sanford,  D,  was  utterly  destroyed  by  a  vein  or  con- 
centration of  the  force  which  crossed  the  central  line  from  the 
right  hand  side,  and  the  fragments  were  strewed  in  the  direction 
of  the  barn,  N.  29°  E.  from  the  house.  The  members  of  the 
family  were  carried  in  the  same  direction,  and  found  in  the  de- 
bris. "An  ox  cart,  before  the  storm,  was  standing  close  by,  and  in 
the  rear  of  Mr.  Sanford's  house,  and  was  loaded  with  potatoes. 
The  cart  was  lifted  up  by  the  wind ;  it  soon  turned  a  somerset,  so 
as  to  empty  the  potatoes  upon  the  ground,  and  nearly  all  in  a 
heap.  The  cart  itself  was  dropped  a  few  rods  behind  the  barn, 
and  at  a  distance  of  30  rods  from  the  house.  If  the  cart  moved 
in  a  straight  line,  it  must  have  passed  directly  over  the  barn.  In- 
deed it  is  quite  probable  that  such  was  the  case,  for  the  cart  struck 
flat  upon  one  wheel,  which  buried  itself  to  a  considerable  depth 
in  the  earth." 

We  are  not  informed  of  the  direction  in  which  the  fragments 
of  the  unroofed  buildings  on  the  north  side  of  the  track  (aijd 
most  of  them  were  unroofed)  were  carried.  But  as  Prof.  Loomis 
says,  "everywhere  there  is  the  same  evidence  of  two  currents  in 
exactly  opposite  directions,  having  passed  over  precisely  the  same 
spot,"  it  is  probable  that  the  southern  current  crossed  the  center 
of  the  track  at  other  places. 

Turn  again  to  the  fragment  of  Prof.  Olmsted's  chart  on  page 
79,  and  observe  how  the  fragments  of  the  building  on  the  right 
hand  side  of  the  track  were  carried  across  the  center  on  to  the 
left  hand  side,  and  also  how  the  fragments  of  the  building  and 
some  of  the  trees  standing  on  the  left  side,  are  thrown  outward 
and  backward  by  the  southerly  currents  which  crossed  the  center 
of  the  path. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  335 

Turn  next  to  the  remaining  portion  of  his  chart  on  page  321, 
and  observe  how  the  fragments  are  carried  by  the  southerly  cur- 
rent across  the  center  at  E  in  Section  I,  and  at  M  in  Section  II, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  trees  are  thrown  backward  and  out- 
ward on  the  left  of  the  path  near  L  in  Section  II,  at  Q,  in  Sec- 
tion III,  and  at  S  in  Section  IV. 

Turn  next  to  Section  III  of  Prof.  Stoddard's  chart  of  the  Bran- 
don tornado  and  see  the  manner  in  which  the  southern  currents 
cross  the  center  of  the  path,  and  curve  backward  as  they  pass  out- 
ward. The  fact  that  they  thus  passed  in  advance  of  the  lateral 
currents  of  the  left  side,  is  shown  by  the  arrows  indicative  of  the 
left  hand  current,  which  have  a  cross  on  them,  as  well  as  by  the 
simple  arrows  intended  to  show  the  left  hand  current ;  for  the  cross 
upon  the  arrows  of  the  left  hand  current  indicates  that  the  trees 
which  they  represent,  lay  over  trees  previously  prostrated  in  an 
opposite  direction.  The  same  overlying  may  be  observed  near 
the  center  on  Section  II  where  two  such  crossed  arrows  are 
placed. 

Turn  now  to  Prof.  Stoddard's  chart  of  the  Harrison  tornado, 
and  you  may  see  on  Section  B  the  precise  manner  in  which  the 
southerly  currents  cross  the  center  and  curve  backward  in  ad- 
vance of  the  left  hand  currents,  on  the  north  side  of  the  path. 
On  this  chart-,  the  action  of  the  currents  is  unmistakable.  And 
in  this  connection,  I  copy  the  following  important  suggestion  from 
Prof.  Stoddard's  account : 

"  In  conclusion,  the  writer  would  take  the  liberty  to  suggest  to 
observers  that  he  has  found  it  important  to  carry  his  observations 
beyond  the  track  of  greatest  violence.  Though  no  trees  nor 
houses  may  be  thrown  down,  yet  valuable  evidence  to  show  the 
mode  of  action  can  oftentimes  be  obtained. 

Mr.  Laird's  house  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Graham  place,  was  on 
the  left  of  the  axis,  but  too  far  from  it  to  suffer  any  injury.  The 
wind  was  violent,  but  left  none  of  the  ordinary  marks  which  could 
determine  its  direction.  Mr.  Laird,  however,  stated  to  the  writer 
that  the  wind  first  blew  in  the  south  door,  and  two  men  were  un- 
able to  shut  it.  A  moment  afterwards,  and  the  north  door,  wh'ch 


336 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


had  been  locked,  was  violently  driven  in.  The  direct  and  reverse 
stroke  of  the  loop  seem  pointed  out  here.  The  action  of  a  tor- 
nado along  the  axis  only,  affords  but  confused  data  to  elucidate 
the  laws  which  govern  it." 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  understand  what  Prof.  Stoddard 
means  by  the  "  direct  and  reverse  stroke  of  the  loop"  I  here  insert 
a  copy  of  a  figure  made  by  him  to  represent  his  view  of  the 
cycloidal  form  of  the  action,  but  without  endorsing  it.  Our  busi- 
ness now  is  with  the  fact  that  the  right  hand  current  does  cross 
the  center  line  in  advance  of  the  other  as  a  rule. 

FIG.  46. 


From  this  further  review  and  examination,  we  deduce  a  second 
proposition,  viz  :  that  of  the  currents  thus  organized  and  moving 
inwards,  the  right  hand  or  southerly  current  crosses  the  center  in 
advance  of  the  other,  and  curving  backwards,  ascends  over  the 
left  hand  current,  constituting  a  part  of  the  upward,  ascending 
and  visible  whirl.  The  northerly  or  left  hand  current  curves  be- 
hind the  other,  having  frequently  a  backward  inclination,  and  be- 
ing weaker  and  following  the  rapidly  advancing  spout  it  curves 
and  rises  over  the  right  hand  current,  prostrating  or  turning  trees 
so  that  they  overlie  those  previously  prostrated  by  the  right  hand 
current,  and  ascending  over  the  right  hand  side  of  the  path,  con- 
stituting another  portion  of  the  whirl.  These  currents  thus  or- 
ganized and  operating  when  unaffected  by  the  disturbing  causes 
which  produced  the  irregularity,  constitute  the  law  of  the  tornado. 

I  have  made  these  deductions  from  a  limited  number  of  instan- 
ces, but  they  are  instances  where  the  facts  were  carefully  observed 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  337 

by  intelligent  men,  and  I  know  of  no  instance  that  is  in  conflkt 
with  them.  The  same  facts  do  not  appear  so  clearly  in  the  New 
Harmony  tornado,  and  for  obvious  reasons.  A  mile  square  of 
the  track  of  that  tornado  was  surveyed  and  plotted  by  Mr.  Chap- 
pelsmith,  exhibiting  the  direction  in  which  every  prostrated  tree 
fell,  and  is  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  science.  But,  as  we 
shall  see  hereafter,  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  wider  organizations  to 
the  straight  line  gust,  rather  than  the  limited  whirl,  and  tLat  ten- 
dency affected  the  New  Harmony  tornado.  So  it  undoubtedly 
was  affected  by  the  unusual  rapidity  of  its  progress,  and  it  is  nat- 
ural that  the  law  we  have  deduced  should  be  more  or  less  masked 
by  the  causes  named. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  straight  line  thunder-gust,  a  few 
miles  in  width  only,  which  occurs  beneath  the  summer  belts  of 
showers.  And  we  have  seen  in  the  Cincinnati  hurricane,  which  was 
from  30  to  40  miles  in  width,  and  moved  with  the  speed  of  70 
miles  per  hour,  that  the  lateral  currents  were  from  the  S.W.  on 
one  side,  arid  the  N.W.  on  the  other,  as  they  are  in  our  summer 
belts  of  showers,  without  observable  evidence  of  whirl  in  either. 
But  notwithstanding  the  width  and  speed  of  the  New  Harmony 
tornado,  its  lateral  currents  were  clearly  discernible  amid  the 
confusion  which  other  causes  produced,  although  it  is  not  proba- 
ble that  a  distinct  whirl,  embracing  the  entire  organization  existed 
at  the  surface  or  above  it,  at  any  instant  of  time. 

AND  WE  MAY  TRACE  THIS  LAW  OF  THE  SMALL,  AS  THE  LAW 
OF  THE  GREAT,  THROUGH  ALL  THE  VARIED  ATMOSPHERIC  OR- 
GANIZATIONS. 

We  have  seen  that  those  lateral  currents  are  clearly  developed 
in  the  wide  as  well  as  the  narrow  belts  of  summer  showers.  In 
the  wider  and  less  intense  southeaster,  and  on  the  margins  of  the 
still  wider  and  still  less  intense  northeasters,  and  in  the  great  cen- 
tral condition  where  they  constitute  the  trades. 

Let  us  look  at  them,  first,  as  we  have  seen  them  developed  in 
belts  of  showers.  That  organization,  if  regard  is  had  to  the  con- 
ditions of  both  hemispheres,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  frequent  of 
all ;  indeed,  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  nearly  all  of  their  organ- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

izations  are  of  that  character.  There  are  upon  record  a  few 
southeaster,  corresponding  to  our  northeasters,  in  which  the  wind 
blew  continuously  from  the  S.E.,  in  opposition  to  the  progress  of 
the  storm,  as  it  does  in  our  northeasters ;  but  they  are  occasional, 
exceptional,  and  in  high  latitudes  only.  We  have  seen  from  the 
log  of  the  China,  that  that  vessel  encountered  and  ran  through 
five  distinct  conditions — long,  narrow,  elliptical,  and  trough-like, 
wiih  N.E.  or  N.W.  lateral  winds  on  the  northerly  side,  and  S.W. 
winds  on  the  southerly  side.  Through  these  conditions  she  held 
Ler  way,  averaging  201  miles  per  day,  and  in  no  one  of  thern  did 
she  meet  with  a  storm  wind  hauling  round  through  the  E.  and 
S.E.  to  the  S.W.  as  she  would  have  done  had  they  been  cyclones, 
but  in  each  and  all  of  them  she  had  the  wind  hauling  from  the 
N.  through  W.  to  S.W.  or  shifting  suddenly  to  the  same  quarter. 

In  Maury's  Sailing  Directions  are  given  the  logs  of  130  ships. 
or  voyages  around  Cape  Horn.  I  have  carefully  examined  those 
log?.  I  find  four  or  five  instances  where,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Falkland  Islands  or  in  the  Pacific  west  of  Ion.  78°,  the  wind  wen: 
around  from  N.E.  through  E.  and  S.E.  to  S.W.  But  they  were 
all  during  variable  weather  without  depression  of  the  thermome- 
ter or  serious  gale,  and  not  even  such  an  instance  occurred  in  any 
of  the  130  cases  between  lat.  56°  and  59°,  and  east  of  Ion.  75°. 
Off  the  Horn  and  south  of  it,  those  130  vessels  all  had  their  storm 
winds  and  low  barometer  from  N.  to  W.,  and  their  fair  weather 
winds  with  rising  barometer  from  S.W.,  showing  a  succession 
of  passing  elliptical  belts  witji  a  wind  setting  in  from  some  north- 
erly point  and  ending  at  S.W.  Col.  Reid  assumes  every  one  of 
those  belts,  and  all  other  passing  organizations  in  the  hemisphere 
to  be  revolving  gales,  but  it  is  a  mistaken  assumption.  Let  us 
examine. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  cut  given  by  Col.  Reid,  pur- 
porting to  represent  the  manner  in  which  the  wind  changes  in 
what  he  assumes  to  be  revolving  gales  at  the  Horn. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    46. 


339 


It  was  an  easy  matter  for  Col.  Reid  to  sweep  a  circle  upon  the 
map  representing  a  revolving  storm,  so  that  in  passing  from  the 
S.E.,  a  vessel  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  having 
a  wind  N.E.  or  N.,  should  have  the  wind  veering  round  from 
"W.  to  S.W.  as  the  storm  passed  over  the  vessel.  He  has  drawn 
his  line  across  the  circle,  to  represent  the  manner  in  which  the 
storm  passed  over  a  vessel.  Many  similar  circles,  representing 
the  vessel  as  in  the  northerly  half  of  the  gale,  are  scattered 
through  his  chapter  on  the  gales  of  high  southern  latitudes.  But 


340  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

not  in  a  single  instance  does  he  represent  a  vessel  as  having  been 
caught  in  the  southern  half  of  a  revolving  gale,  and  having  the 
wind  setting  in  at  N.E.  and  veering  round  through  E.,  S.E.  and  S. 
to  S.W.  Nor  have  I  met  with  such  an  instance  in  my  reading 
in  relation  to  the  gales  of  that  hemisphere.  If  the  gales  of  that 
hemisphere  are  cyclones,  the  southern  half  of  them  is  above  the 
earth,  and  that  cannot  be. 

As  this  matter  is  fundamental  and  important,  I  will  examine 
the  chapter  of  Col.  Reid,  on  the  Gales  of  High  Southern  Lati- 
tudes in  detail. 

He  first  cites  from  the  record  of  Capt.  Wickham,  R.  N.,  who 
commanded  Her  Majesty's  ship  Beagle,  whilst  surveying  the  west 
coast  of  Australia.  His  first  citation  relates  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  south  polar  zone  of  rains  extends  up  over  that  conti- 
nent during  the  northern  transit  of  the  zones,  and  is  interesting 
for  that  reason. 

"  May  is  the  month  in  which  the  winter  weather  fairly  sets  in, 
and  it  rarely  happens  that  the  middle  of  this  month  passes  with- 
out the  rains  having  commenced.  This  season  seems  to  vary  but 
little  as  to  the  time  and  manner  of  setting  in.  It  is  ushered  in 
by  blowing  weather  from  about  N.N.E.,  the  wind  gradually  veer- 
ing round  to  the  westward,  as  it  increases  in  strength.  The  first 
of  this  weather  usually  lasts  from  a  week  to  fourteen  days,  then 
comes  an  interval  of  fine  weather  generally  of  a  fortnight's  dura- 
tion, and  sometimes  a  month,  after  which  the  rains  set  in  more 
constant,  and  the  intervals  of  fine  weather  are  shorter.  This 
weather  lasts  until  October,  and  at  times  throughout  that  month." 

We  here  see  the  manner  in  which  the  south  polar  zone  of  rains 
extends  up  with  the  general  transit,  and  that  its  peculiarities  are  the 
same  as  exist  in  the  northern  zone.  There  is  the  same  interval  of 
fine  weather  occurring  between  its  first  appearance  and  its  steady 
existence,  " the  early  and  latter  rain"  and  sometimes  the  differ- 
ence of  a  month  in  the  time  of  its  disappearance.  When  the 
latter  is  traced  out,  it  will  be  found  to  be  connected  with,  and 
conformed  to  the  irregularity  of  the  transits  of  the  central  belt. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  341 

Capt.  Wickham  sums  up  the  character  of  the  gales  on  the  S.W. 
coast  of  New  Holland,  as  follows  : 

"  The  N.W.  gales  that  occasionally  occur  during  the  winter 
months,  on  the  southern  parts  of  the  west  coast  of  New  Holland, 
are  probably  felt  as  far  north  as  Sharks  Bay.  They  blow  with 
great  violence,  and  are  accompanied  by  dark,  gloomy  weather  and 
rain.  It  is  then  unsafe  to  be  near  the  land,  as  the  gale  that  com- 
mences at  N.N.E.  invariably  veers  to  the  westward,  making  a  lee 
shore  of  the  whole  line  of  coast,  and  between  W.N.W.,  and 
W.S.W.  blows  the  hardest." 

Col.  Reid  copies  from  the  record  of  Capt.  Wickham,  descrip- 
tions of  a  number  of  storms,  but  they  all,  with  a  single  excep- 
tion, commenced  with  wind  from  N.E.  or  N.W.,  and  a  falling  bar- 
ometer, and  with  a  cloud  bank  coming  from  the  west  or  northwest, 
ending  with  the  wind  southwest  and  a  rising  barometer.  There 
was  one  exception  which  was  evidently  a  straight  line  southeaster, 
corresponding  to  our  northeaster.  The  record  is  as  follows : 

"  On  the  8th  of  the  same  month,  the  barometer  was  30.05  ;  at 
8  P.  M.  with  fine  weather,  wind  S  E.  by  E.  it  then  commenced 
to  fall,  and  at  8  P.  M.  on  the  9th,  was  29.80,  and  blowing  a  heavy 
gale  at  S.E.,  which  continued  all  night  and  until  8  P.  M.  on  the 
10th,  at  which  time  it  became  more  moderate,  and  the  barometer 
began  to  rise."  That  was  clearly  a  straight  line  southeaster 
which  did  not  veer,  and  not  a  revolving  gale. 

The  last  case  cited  was  exactly  like  the  northeasters  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  where  they  commence  at  N.E.  in  opposition 
to  the  progress  of  the  storm,  and  blow  in  a  straight  line  for  36 
hours  or  more,  and  cease  when  the  storm  has  passed  by.  Such, 
precisely,  was  the  southeaster  described  by  Capt.  Wickham. 

If  the  reader  will  remember  that  the  storms  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  travel  to  the  S.E  instead  of  the  N.E.,  that  the  lateral 
storm  winds  are  on  the  northerly  or  tropical  side,  and  the  lateral 
fair  weather  winds  on  the  south  or  polar  side,  directly  the  oppo- 
site of  what  occurs  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  he  will  clearly  un- 
derstand that  all  the  instances,  so  far,  conform  to  the  character  of 
long,  elliptical  belts,  rather  than  revolving  gales. 


342  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Col.  Reid  next  cites  from  the  record  of  Sir  J.  Ross,  of  two 
voyages  to  the  south  seas,  with  an  account  of  one  or  more  storms 
which  commenced  with  the  wind  from  a  northeily  point,  veering 
through  the  W.,  and  ending  in  S.W.  One  of  these  was  in  lat. 
62°  42',  and  another  in  65°  48'.  Not  a  storm  is  cited  from  either 
voyage  of  Sir  J.  Ross  which  set  in  from  the  N.E.  or  E.,  and  veered 
through  the  S.E.  to  S.W.  Col.  Reid  next  cites  from  Capt.  Fitz- 
roy  with  relation  to  the  storms  on  the  western  coast  of  South 
America,  and  I  copy  a  part  of  the  citation. 

"  There  is  much  less  difference  between  the  climate,  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  and  the  order  in  which  they  follow ;  the  tides  and 
the  currents  on  the  outer  coasts  of  Chiloe,  and  at  the  west  entrance 
of  Maghalaens  Strait,  including  the  intermediate  coasts,  than 
persons  would  suppose,  who  judge  only  from  their  geographical 
positions.  Northwesterly  winds  prevail,  bringing  clouds  and  rain 
in  abundance.  Southwesters  succeed  them,  and  partially  clear  the 
sky  with  their  fury  ;  then  the  wind  moderates  and  hauls  into  the 
southeast  quarter  where  after  a  short  interval  of  fine  weather,  it 
dies  away.  Light  airs  spring  up  from  the  N.E.,  freshening  as  they 
veer  around  to  N.,  and  augment  the  store  of  moisture  which  they 
always  bring.  From  the  N.  they  soon  shift  to  the  usual  quarter, 
N.W.,  and  between  that  point  and  S.W.  they  shift  and  back, 
sometimes  for  weeks  before  they  take  another  turn  round.  When 
the  wind  backs  (from  S.W.  to  W.N.W.,  &c.)  bad  weather  and 
strong  winds  are  sure  to  follow.  On  that  coast  the  wind  never 
backs  suddenly,  but  it  shifts  with  the  sun  (with  respect  to  that 
hemisphere)  very  suddenly,  sometimes  flying  from  N.W.  to  S.W. 
or  S.  in  a  most  violent  squall.  Before  a  shift  of  this  kind  there 
is  almost  always  an  opening  or  light  appearance  in  the  clouds 
TOWARDS  THE  S.W.  which  the  Spaniards  call  an  eye  (ojo),  and  for 
that  signal  the  seamen  ought  to  watch  carefully.  As  the  sudden 
shifts  are  always  with  the  sun,  no  man  ought  to  be  taken  aback 
unexpectedly ;  for  so  long  as  a  northwester  is  blowing  with  any 
strength,  accompanied  by  rain,  so  long  must  he  recollect  that  the 
wind  may  fly  round  to  the  S.W.  quarter  at  any  minute.  It  never 
blows  hard  from  E. ;  rarely  with  any  strength  from  N.E.,  but  an 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  343 

occasional  severe  gale  from  S.E.  may  be  expected,  especially 
about  the  middle  of  winter  (June,  July,  August).  In  summer 
southerly  winds  last  longer,  and  blow  more  frequently  than  they 
do  in  winter,  and  the  reverse.  The  winds  never  go  completely 
round  the  circle  ;  they  die  away  as  they  approach  E.,  and  after  an 
interval  of  calm,  more  or  less  in  duration,  spring  up  gradually  be- 
tween N.E.  by  E.  and  N." 

In  this  extract  we  have  the  following  facts :  first,  the  north- 
westerly winds  prevail,  bringing  clouds  and  rain  in  abundance, 
southwesters  succeed  them,  and  when  they  die  away,  fine  weather 
ensues.  Second,  the  wind'  blows  steadily  from  the  northward, 
sometimes  hauling  slowly  from  N.W.  to  S.W.,  and  sometimes  fly- 
ing suddenly  from  one  to  the  other  in  a  violent  squall.  Third,  it 
is  in  the  interval  between  the  passing  by  of  the  stratus  cloud  of 
the  storm,  and  the  obscuration  of  the  sky  by  the  scud  of  the 
S.W.  wind  that  what  is  called  the  ojo  or  supposed  eye  of  the 
storm  is  seen,  and  it  is  obvious  that  this  is  all  there  is  of  it. 
Fourth,  an  occasional  severe  southeaster,  precisely  like  the  ex- 
ceptional one  described  by  Capt.  Wickham,  corresponding  to  our 
northeasters,  is  experienced.  Fifth,  IT  NEVEK  BLOWS  HARD 
FROM  E.,  rarely  with  any  strength  from  N.E.,  and  it  is  perfectly 
evident  that  a  cycloidal  storm  setting  in  between  N.E.  and  E.,  and 
veering  through  S.E.  to  S.W.,  was  never  witnessed  there  by 
Capt.  Fitzroy.  All  the  phenomena  point  conclusively  to  the  pas- 
sage of  successive  long,  narrow,  elliptical  belts,  with  northerly 
winds  upon  their  tropical  sides,  and  southerly  winds  on  the  polar 
sides,  moving  to  the  southeast  and  drifting  to  the  east,  precisely 
as  they  occur  in  this  country,  and  that  the  "  ojo,"  of  which  so 
much  is  made,  is  simply  the  lighting  up,  at  the  close  of  the  storm, 
in  the  S.W.  just  as  we  frequently  see  it  in  the  N.W. 

Col.  Reid  next  cites  the  case  of  a  French  vessel  in  lat.  38°  S., 
long.  22°  E.,  in  which  it  was  said  the  "ojo"  was  seen.  The  ship 
took  the  gale  from  the  N.E.,  and  it  veered  round  through  the 
N.W.  to  the  W ,  and  then  again  the  "ojo"  was  nothing  more  than 
what  we  frequently  see  when  the  obscuring  stratus  clouds  of  the 
belt  have  drifted  past  the  zenith,  and  the  heavy  westerly  scud  are 


344 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


coming  up  in  the  westerly  clearing  off  wind.  I  have  seen  hund- 
reds of  just  such  "  ojos "  in  the  course  of  fifty  years,  and  an 
average  of  at  least  ten  may  be  seen  any  year,  and  in  any  part  of 
this  country  or  off  the  coast,  by  any  one  who  will  take  the  pains 
to  look  for  them,  when  the  storm  ends  by  "  lighting  up  "  in  the 
northwest. 

Col.  Reid  next  cites  from  the  record  of  Capt.  Sullivan,  R.  N., 
who  was  employed  making  a  survey  of  the  Falkland  Islands. 
The  substance  of  his  observations  is  contained  in  the  following 
paragraph : 

"  We  had,  on  an  average,  during  the  five  months  I  was  there, 
as  many  days  of  gales  as  of  moderate  weather,  the  usual  round 
being  this : — The  gale  commenced  at  N.  or  N.W.,  and  after  hav- 
ing blown  for  some  hours  from  those  quarters  drew  round  to  west, 
then  southwest  and  south.  But  there  were  some  gales  that  blew 
for  several  days  from  S.W.  without  having  commenced  from  the 
northward  of  west.  Some  also  commenced  at  N.E.  and  blew 
strong  from  that  quarter  for  several  hours  before  they  drew  round 
to  the  westward."  This,  allowing  for  the  different  direction  in 
which  the  storms  move  in  the  two  hemispheres,  is  just  what  takes 
place  in  the  interior  of  this  country,  and  all  over  our  hemisphere  ; 
and  Capt.  Sullivan  met  with  no  gales  which  veered  through  E. 
and  S.E.  to  S.W. 

Captain  Sullivan  had  a  method  of  keeping  his  record  of  the 
wind  which  was  peculiar.  It  was  by  mapping  arrows  on  an  east 


FIG.  47. 


8     10 


Magnetic 
North 


\       \ 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  345 

and  west  line,  with  dotted  lines  for  the  days  and  figures  to  show 
the  strength  of  the  wind,  as  shown  by  Fig.  47. 

Col.  Reid  drew  his  imaginary  circle  around  such  a  record,  in 
mapping  the  diagram  on  page  339.  But  it  should  be  observed, 
1st,  that  he  tilted  up  the  line,  so  as  to  have  it  slide  over  the  island 
from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  and  that  changed  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
and  falsified  the  record.  And  2d,  that  even  then,  the  record 
showed  steady  winds  from  the  two  points,  not  gradually  veering 
ones. 

Col.  Reid  next  cites  from  an  account  of  the  voyage  of  the  Al- 
batross from  Van  Diemans  Land  to  England,  round  Cape  Horn. 
When  in  the  South  Pacific,  and  in  lat.  48°  S.,  long.  159°  W.,  the 
master,  Mr.  J.  M.  Gill,  remarks  : 

"  It  is  here  where  the  mariner  may  study  and  depend  on  the 
barometer.  As  regularly  as  the  gale  veered  from  the  northward 
to  the  southward  of  west,  so  the  column  rose,  and  from  the  south- 
ward to  the  northward,  the  indicator  was  depressed."  And  it  is 
added,  '•  that  light  winds,  veering  to  the  north  and  east  forebode 
the  day  of  change." 

There  is  subsequently  a  description  of  a  gale  in  which  the  uojo" 
appears  again,  and  I  copy :  "  The  N.W.  gale  continued  to  rage 
with  fury  until  6  A.  M.,  when  it  suddenly  changed  to  W.S.W., 
and  blew  with  increased  force.  The  heavy  cross  sea,  produced 
by  a  sudden  shift,  is  described  as  all  foam  and  spray.  The  little 
vessel  was  then  near  the  gale's  center,  and  here  we  have  an  ex- 
ample of  that  clear  space  in  the  heart  of  the  tempest,  the  storm's 
eye."  Mr.  Gill  adds  :  "  The  sun  having  been  concealed  during 
the  day,  now  shone  out  for  a  few  minutes  nearly  in  the  wind's  eye, 
with  fiery  brightness,  some  of  us  thought  for  the  last  time.  The 
small  archway  that  opened  to  ivindward  through  dense  masses  of 
cloud,  served  the  purpose  of  a  funnel,  and  forced  the  gale  over  us 
in  gusts,  every  one  of  which  appeared  determined  to  tear  away 
the  few  yards  of  canvass  we  had  set ;  strong,  stout  and  new  as 
they  were."  The  idea  of  an  archway  in  the  cloud  operating  as 
a  funnel  for  the  surface  wind  is  an  absurd  fancy ;  but  not  more 
ab  urd  than  the  idea  that  the  setting  in  of  a  fair  weather  wind — 
the  storm  clouds  having  all  passed  by,  and  permitted  the  sun  to 
10 


346  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

appear — constitutes  the  center  of  the  storm.  Those  archways  of 
clear  sky  are  common  when  the  wind  shifts  to  the  N.W.,  and  it 
lights  up  in  that  quarter,  the  storm  c'ouds  having  passing  by. 

Let  me  now  turn  your  attention  to  another  important  and  sat- 
isfactory piece  of  evidence.  And  here  I  cite  from  the  "Handy 
Book  of  Meteorology"  by  Mr.  Buchan,  the  Secretary  of  the  Scot- 
tish Meteorological  Society,  published  in  1868,  page  273. 

"  STORMS  OP  THE  INDIAN  OCEAN,  SOUTH  OF  THE  EQUATOR. 
Through  the  activity  and  well-directed  efforts  of  the  Meteorolog- 
ical Society  of  Mauritius,  the  storms  of  the  Indian  Ocean  have 
been  submitted  to  a  fuller  examination  than  those  of  any  other 
ocean  on  the  globe.  Since  the  formation  of  this  Society  in  1851, 
it  has  devoted  a  large  share  of  its  attention  to  the  collecting  of 
Meteorological  statistics  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  tabulating 
of  them  in  chronological  order.  Upwards  of  500  synchronous 
weather  charts  have  been  constructed  under  the  direction  of  its 
able  and  energetic  secretary,  Charles  Meldrum.  I  have  through 
his  courtesy,  examined  a  considerable  number  of  these  charts, 
which,  if  the  isobarometric  lines  were  filled  in,  would  leave  noth- 
ing to  be  desired.  At  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association, 
held  in  Dundee,  1867,  Mr.  Meldrum  gave  an  account  of  these 
storms,  and  it  is  chiefly  from  this  paper,  a  copy  of  which  he  has 
kindly  sent  me,  that  the  following  facts  regarding  them,  have  been 
taken.  Of  these  storms  there  are  two  sorts,  viz  :  tropical  and 
extratropical  storms." 

'•EXTRATROPICAL  STORMS.  These  storms  occur  at  all  seasons, 
but  are  most  violent  during  the  winter  months,  from  May  to 
August  inclusive,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  extratropical 
storms  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  are  generally  charac- 
terized by  the  presence  of  two  currents  of  air,  the  one  from  the 
southward  and  the  other  from  the  northward.  Sometimes  the 
two  currents  exist  side  by  side,  the  one  from  the  N.E.,  the  other 
from  the  S.W.,  each  occupying  a  belt  of  5°  to  30°  in  longitude, 
and  stretching  from  30°  S.  Int.,  as  far  south  as  the  observations 
extend,  viz  :  to  lat.  45°.  In  the  space  between  the  two  winds, 
light  airs,  calms,  and  a  high  cross  sea,  with  heavy  rain,  thunder 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYST7M.  347 

and  lightning,  generally  prevail,  and  there  the  barometer  is  low- 
est. The  belt  of  southerly  winds  lies  invariably  to  the  west  of 
the  northerly  winds,  and  the  two  travel  laterally  to  the  eastward, 
preserving  their  relative  position  often  for  several  days.  Instead 
of  blowing  in  parallel  belts,  however,  the  winds  are  often  in- 
clined, and  sometimes  directly  opposed  to  each  other.  The  bar- 
ometer stands  higher  and  the  thermometer  lower,  in  the  southern 
than  in  the  northern  gale,  being  in  these  respects  quite  analogous 
to  European  and  other  storms  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  There 
cannot  be  a  doubt  that  the  form  of  by  far  the  majority  of  these 
storms,  is  that  of  elongated  ellipses,  or  trough-like,  their  length 
being  very  much  greater  than  their  breadth.  On  this  account  the 
shifts  of  the  wind  are  generally  sudden  from  N.E.  to  S.W.  or 
from  N.W.  to  S.W.  The  veering  is  from  N.E.  to  N.,  N.W.W., 
and  ending  at  S.W.  or  S.E.  They  last  from  one  to  seven  days, 
and  travel  at  the  rate  of  fi  om  4  to  20  miles  an  hour — their  pro- 
gressive motion  being  thus  generally  slower  than  that  of  Euro- 
pean storms.  Mr.  Meldrum  is  of  opinion  that  they  are  not  re- 
volving gales,  like  the  storms  which  take  place  in  the  tropics — an 
opinion  with  which  I  am  not  prepared  to  concur  for  the  following 
reasons." 

These  reasons  are  unimportant,  and  I  omit  them.  They  are 
simply  doubts  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  evidence,  such  as  might 
be  expected  from  one  prepossessed  in  favor  of  a  different  theo-y. 

And  now,  practical  reader,  let  me  beg  you  to  read  and  re-read 
that  concise  description,  so  perfectly  conforming  in  every  particu- 
lar to  our  long  narrow  belts  and  southeasters,  and  having  the 
same  lateral  winds  which  are  found  in  them. 

It  is  pleasant  to  find  a  meteorologist  like  Mr.  Meldrum,  resid- 
ing on  an  island  in  an  ocean,  and  devoting  his  time  as  secretary 
of  a  meteorological  society,  to  the  investigation  of  storms  which 
render  the  navigation  of  that  ocean  dangerous  to  an  immense 
mercantile  interest,  thus  arriving  at  correct  results  in  relation  to 
the  extratropical  storms  of  that  hemisphere.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  his  example  may  not  be  lost,  and  his  facts  unheeded,  by  the 
meteorologists  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  His  description  of 
these  extratropical  b*.4ts  conforms  precisely  to  the  character  of 


348 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


our  summer  belts  of  showers,  and  autumn  southeaster  as  they 
form  and  travel  to  the  northeast  and  drift  laterally  to  the  east- 
ward, in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  with  the  lateral  wind  on  the 
tropical  side  crossing  in  £  ont  of  the  belt,  and  the  opposite  lateral 
wind  on  the  polar  side,  crossing  in  its  rear.  Such  are,  in  fact,  the 
gales  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 

From  about  the  year  1834  till  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Redfield, 
the  rival  theories  of  Messrs.  Redfield  and  Espy  were  persistently 
and  strenuously  urged  by  them  and  their  friends,  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public.  The  theory  of  Mr.  Espy  assumed,  first  that 
there  was  an  inward  and  upward  current  in  all  large  cumulo- 
strati,  by  which  they  were  constituted,  and  the  following  dia- 
gram is  a  copy  of  that  by  which  he  illustrated  it. 


I  have  seen  thousands  of  them  and  never  saw  any  evidence  of 
such  a  current.  He  next  claimed  that  the  winds  in  all  storms 
blew  in  towards  a  central  point  or  line,  and  he  established  the 
facj;  in  relation  to  many  of  them,  and  in  respect  to  Fome  which 
were  claimed  by  Mr.  Redfield  to  be  cyclones.  Mr.  Redfield  on 
the  other  hand  claimed  that  all  storms  revolved  in  involute  spirals 
around  a  center,  contrary  to  the  movement  of  the  hands  of  a 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


349 


watch  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  with  their  movement  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  Many  storms  were  investigated,  and 
charted  by  each.  The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  card  of  Mr. 
Redfield,  representing  the  manner  in  which  lie  first  assumed  that 
the  winds  revolved  in  the  storms  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 

FIG.  49. 


He  subsequently  modified  his  views  and  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  wind  revolved  spirally  inwaid.  A  great  majority  of  the 
storms  investigated  and  charted  by  Mr.  Redfield  were  ocean 
storms,  but  he  claimed  that  the  tornadoes  were  of  the  same  cliai" 
acter.  It  cannot  be  said  that  Mr.  Redfield  established  the  fact 
that  all  storms  and  gales  were  vorticose,  or  that  any  such  storm 
of  an  extensive  character  ever  occurred  upon  the  interior  of  this 
continent  or  anywhere  over  the  land.  So  on  the  other  hand  it 
cannot  be  claimed  that  Mr.  Espy  proved  that  all  the  ocean  storms 
charted  by  Mr.  Redfield  were  not  cyclones,  and  that  the  wind  in 
them  blew  in  toward  a  central  point  or  line. 

From  my  own  observation  of  the  storms  of  this  country,  and 
an  examination  of  many  claimed  to  be  vorticose,  I  came  to  the 


300  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

conclusion  that  the  theory  of  Mr.  Redfield  could  not  be  sustained, 
and  so  expressed  myself  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  Weather." 
Since  then,  however,  I  have  examined  the  subject  with  greater  care, 
and  in  the  light  of  new  developments  in  relation  to  the  character 
of  the  tornado  and  other  storms,  and  think  I  can  see  clearly  that 
the  truth  lies  in  the  propositions  before  stated,  and  that  many  of 
the  ocean  storms  investigated  by  Mr.  Redfield  were  cyclonic,  in 
the  sense  in  which  the  narrow  and  distinct  tornado  is  cyclonic. 
But  the  great  mass  of  storms,  like  those  we  have  been  consider- 
ing in  the  southern  hemisphere,  are  not  so.  Neither  are  they 
centripetal  in  the  sense  in  which  Mr.  Espy  used  the  term,  for  in 
all  our  long,  elliptical  storms  and  belts  of  showers,  the  wind  blows 
from  the  tropical  side  across  the  front  and  front  part  of  the  storm, 
and  from  the  polar  side  across  the  rear,  and  neither  ascend  at  the 
center  or  central  line  of  the  storm.  When  Mr.  Espy  was  in  Eng- 
land, he  investigated  a  storm  which  crossed  the  Islands  on  the 
6th  of  January,  1839,  and  the  following  (Fig.  50,)  is  a  copy  of 
his  diagram  of  it.  It  was  an  extensive  storm,  and  not  a  belt  of 
showers,  and  seeming  to  prove  his  theory,  it  made  a  strong  im- 
pression on  my  mind. 

Mr.  Espy  drew  his  central  line  from  the  point  of  the  arrow  at 
No.  24,  on  the  English  channel,  to  the  point  of  the  arrow  at  No. 
11,  off  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  assuming  that  the  storm 
traveled  in  that  direction,  which  would  be  from  S.S.W.  to  N.N.E. 
Now  I  long  since  became  satisfied  that  storms  do  not  travel  in 
that  direction  over  the  British  Islands,  at  that  if  at  any  season  of 
the  year,  and  that  his  central  line  should  have  been  drawn  from 
the  S.W.  point  of  Ireland  near  30,  to  the  crossing  of  the  arrows 
No.  10,  from  W.S.W.  to  N.N.E.  T,  en  if  the  direction  of  the 
wind  had  been  given  as  it  in  all  probability  existed,  over  the 
North  Sea,  it  would  have  been  found  that  the  wind  crossed  the 
front  of  the  storm  and  curved  backward  on  the  North  Sea  to  the 
east  of  Scotland,  and  the  map  shows  but  little  more  than  half 
the  storm.  Such  at  least  was  true  of  a  storm  which  occurred  on 
the  2d  of  November,  1863,  and  which  was  carefully  investigated 
and  charted  by  Mr.  Buchan,  and  may  be  found  in  his  work  on 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    50. 


351 


Meteorology,  facing  page  242.  In  that  storm  the  wind  on  the 
tropical  side  crossed  its  front  and  curved  to  the  westward  on  the 
north  side 'of  it. 

The  sharpest  issue  between  Mr.  Kedfield  and  Mr.  Espy  was  in 
relation  to  the  storm  of  1821,  which  was  a  violent  hurricane, 
which,  originating  in  the  West  Indies,  came  up  the  coast  and 
crossed  New  England  through  the  center  of  Connecticut,  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Massachusetts.  Both  agreed  that  the  wind  was  S.E. 
on  the  tropical  or  southern  side  of  the  storm,  veering  as  the  storm 
passed,  through  S.  to  S.W.  Both  agreed  too,  that  the  wind  was 
N.W.  on  the  northerly  or  polar  side  of  the  storm,  west  of  the 
center ;  and  the  sharp  point  of  the  contest  was  whether  the  S.E. 
wind  which  blew  across  the  front  and  front  portion  of  the  storm, 
curved  to  the  west,  becoming  an  east  and  northeast  wind  on  the 
north  front  ending  at  N.W.  I  have  not  room  for  the  data  collect- 


352  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

ed  by  either,  but  I  am  now  satisfied  that  the  lateral  S.E.  wind 
did  so  curve,  and  it  did  so  curve  in  many  other  storms  inves- 
tigated by  Mr.  Redfield. 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  those  storms  were  literally  whirl- 
winds. The  law  of  the  tornado,  as  we  have  deduced  it,  requires 
that  the  S.E.  lateral  wind  after  crossing  the  front  of  the  storm, 
and  curving  to  the  west,  on  its  north  front,  constituting  there  a 
N.E.  wind,  should  rise  over  the  northerly  lateral  wind  of  the 
hurricane,  and  cease  to  be  felt  as  a  surface  wind.  There  is  very 
much  evidence  to  show  that  such  is  the  law  of  that  class  of  vio- 
lent hurricanes,  and  that  the  lull  which  is  spoken  of,  exists  where 
that  N.W.  wind  of  the  storm  when  it  is  in  the  tropic,  and  the  N.E. 
wind  when  off  our  coast,  rises  from  the  surface  to  superimpose 
upon  the  opposite  wind,  and  before  that  opposite  wind  has  arrived 
at  the  place  where  it  ascends.  The  lull,  in  other  words,  oc- 
curs where  the  loop  is  made  by  the  contrary  winds  as  represented 
by  Prof.  Stocldard  in  the  Harrison  tornado. 

I  have  not  space  for  all  the  evidence.  It  requires  an  examin- 
ation of  many  storms  and  of  the  observations  of  many  observers 
during  their  progress.  I  must  content  myself  with  a  reference  to 
two  or  three  facts. 

The  brig  Chas.  Heddle,  sailed  on  the  21st  of  February,  1845, 
from  Mauritius  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  bound  north,  and  was  met 
in  lat.  16°  42' S.,  long.  57°  45'  E.,  by  a  violent  hurricane,  which 
was  moving  slowly  to  the  S.W.  She  was  put  before  the  wind  on 
her  bare  poles,  and  scud  around  the  storm  five  times  in  as  many  days. 
The  following  diagram  (Fig.  51)  shows  the  supposed  track  of  the 
storm,  and  path  of  the  Chas.  Heddle,  as  plotted  by  Mr.  Pidding- 
ton,  from  the  log  of  the  vessel.  I  have  not  room  for  that  log. 

Assuming  the  chart  to  be  substantially  correct,  the  reader  will 
see  at  a  glance  the  contrast  between  the  path  of  the  vessel  on  the 
right  hand  and  left  hand  sides  of  the  assumed  track  of  the  storm, 
and  the  similarity  between  this  chart  and  that  made  by  Prof.  Stod- 
dard  to  represent  the  course  of  the  wind  in  the  Harrison  tornado, 
page  336.  In  both,  a  loop  and  not  a  circle  is  made  upon  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  track.  In  my  judgment  the  Chas.  Heddle  was, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FIG.    51. 


Ch.HeddleUFel. 


353 


Charles  Reddle 
27  Feb.  1845 


each  time,  driven  across  the  front  of  the  storm  by  the  left  hand 
lateral  wind,  which  curved  backward  until  it  met  the  opposite 
lateral  wind  of  the  right  hand  side,  when  she  was  driven  by  that 
opposite  wind  back  into  the  left  hand  lateral  wind  again.  She 
was  then  driven  by  the  left  hand  lateral  wind  onward  and  across 
the  front  and  backward,  and  was  again  met  by  the  right  hand 
lateral  wind,  at  a  sharp  angle,  and  again  driven  back  to  the  left. 
This  process  was  repeated  until  she  was  driven  out  of  the  storm 
or  until  what  seems  more  probable,  the  storm  moving  slowly, 
gradually  contracted  and  dissolved.  I  think  we  may  clearly  dis- 
cern in  this  case,  that  the  distinctive  law  of  the  small,  was  the 


354  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

law  of  the  great.     I  could  give  other  similar  examples  but  not  so 
distinctly  marked. 

We  have  seen  that  there  is  great  variety  in  the  movements  of 
the  wind  of  the  various  organizations,  even  of  the  same  class. 
Hence  we  have  seen  that  the  lateral  currents  and  their  movement 
were  distinctly  traceable,  in  the  narrow,  distinct,  and  simple  tor- 
nado. They  were  to  a  considerable  extent  masked  in  the  New 
Harmony  tornado,  which  was  a  mile  in  width,  and  moved  at  the 
rate  of  60  miles  per  hour.  We  have  also  seen  that  they  became 
S.W.  and  N.W.  lateral  winds  in  the  Cincinnati  hurricane  which 
was  40  miles  wide,  and  moved  at  the  rate  of  70  miles  per  hour. 
It  is  reasonable  to  assume,  and  I  think  demonstrable,  that  a  sim- 
ilar variety  exists  in  hurricane  storms  of  the  West  Indies.  There 
are  undoubtedly  some  which  are  straight  line  hurricanes,  like  that 
of  Cincinnati,  moving  with  rapid  and  terrible  destruction.  There 
are  doubtless  others  which  are  elliptical,  with  the  lateral  winds 
blowing  in  towards  a  central  line,  and  frequently  entirely  across 
the  front  and  rear  of  the  storm.  Some  such  were  charted  by 
Prof.  Espy.  There  is  another  class,  probably  the  mo<t  numerous, 
in  which  the  law  of  the  distinctive  tornado  as  we  have  contem- 
plated it,  was  fully  developed.  Of  that  class,  the  following  dia- 
gram (Fig.  52)  is  a  sufficiently  accurate  representation.  It  is  as- 
sumed to  have  formed  somewhere  to  the  southeast  of  its  position, 
within  the  dotted  line  where  the  summer  temperature  of  the  Ocean 
is  80°,  and  to  be  moving  northwest. 

The  peculiarity  of  that  class  is  that  the  action  of  the  storm 
commences  on  the  front,  with  a  marked  increase  in  the  strength 
of  the  N.E.  trades,  and  a  gradual  veering  of  the  wind  on  the 
south  front  to  the  N.W.,  followed  by  a  lull  of  longer  or  shorter 
continuance,  according  to  the  speed  with  which  the  storm  pro- 
gresses. That  the  N.W.  wind  is  suddenly  succeeded  by  the  equal- 
ly violent  left  hand  lateral  wind  from  the  S.W.  As  the  storm 
passes  on  to  the  N.W.,  that  lateral  wind  is  succeeded  by  the  reg- 
ular S.E.  trade,  and  pleasant  weather.  In  this  class  of  storms 
we  may  see  clearly  exemplified  the  "  law  of  the  small,"  as  in  the 
distinct  tornado. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 
FlG.    52. 


S55 


Several  of  this  class  were  investigated  and  charted  by  Mr. 
Redfield.  The  hurricane  of  September,  1821,  in  relation  to 
which  Mr.  Redfield  and  Mr.  Espy  were  at  issue,  I  am  now  sat- 
isfied, was  of  this  class.  From  the  time  it  struck  the  coast  of 
South  Carolina,  after  curving  to  the  N.N.E.,  and  until  it  passed 
New  York,  and  entered  over  Connecticut,  the  wind  upon  its  left 
hand  front  veered  to  the  N.E.  as  it  doubtless  had  done  in  lower  lat- 
itudes. When,  however,  it  had  entered  bodily  over  the  land  in 
New  England,  it  soon  lost  that  distinctive  peculiarity,  and  when 
it  crossed  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  river,  the  right  hand  lat- 
eral S.E.  wind  blew  up  the  valley  the  entire  length  of  it,  and 
across  the  entire  width  of  the  storm  during  all  the  time  it  was  pass- 
ing. As  I  then  lived  in  the  valley,  and  noticed  the  storm  par- 
ticularly, that  fact  went  far  to  induce  the  belief  that  it  was  not, 
in  any  sense,  a  revolving  storm.  Nor  did  the  lateral,  left  hand 
northerly  wind  continue  with  any  destructive  strength,  after  it 
entered  upon  the  land  in  its  N.N.E.  course  except  for  a  limited 
period  in  Litchfield  County.  We  have,  in  the  case  of  that  storm, 
satisfactory  evidence  that  revolving,  or  to  speak  more  correctly, 
semi-revolving  storms,  sometimes  lose  their  semi-revolving  char- 
acter, when  they  pass  on  to  continents.  The  fact  is  demonstrably 


356  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

true  of  all  the  hurricanes  which  enter  bodily  upon  the  Gulf 
States,  and  curve  to  the  N.E.  over  them,  or  the  Mississippi 
valley. 

A  hurricane  substantially  similar  to  that  of  1821,  passed  over 
Rhode  Island  and  Eastern  Massachusetts,  on  the  8th  September, 
1869,  pursuing  a  N.N.E.  course.  I  was  sitting  upon  the  Court  in 
Hartford  on  that  day,  and  was  interested  to  observe  the  approach 
of  the  storm.  The  wind  was  S.E.  in  the  forenoon,  the  atmos- 
phere very  clear,  and  the  sky  very  blue,  but  there  were  very 
large  and  peculiar  scud  floating  in  the  fresh  S.E.  wind,  and  drop- 
ping dashes  of  rain,  which  I  well  understood  to  be  the  scud  of  a 
S.E.  wind  blowing  across  the  front  of  a  hurricane  storm  off  the 
coast.  I  went  two  or  three  times  in  the  course  of  the  forenoon 
into  the  State  Library,  from  the  windows  of  which  a  fine  view 
could  be  had  to  the  east  and  southeast,  for  the  purpose  of  observ- 
ing whether  the  wind  changed  to  E.  and  N.E.,  so  as  to  indicate 
that  the  hurricane  would  pass  over  us.  I  called  the  attention  of 
Mr.  Hoadly,  the  State  Librarian,  to  the  character  of  the  scud 
and  their  indication  that  there  was  a  hurricane  storm  off  the 
coast.  The  wind  and  scud  did  not  change  their  couree,  or  veer 
during  the  forenoon,  to  the  E.  or  N.E.,  and  I  was  satisfied  that 
the  storm  would  pass  by  to  the  S.E.  of  us,  and  gave  it  no  more 
attention.  The  wind  freshened  somewhat  in  the  early  part  of  the 
afternoon;  and  during  the  course  of  it,  and  about  the  time  when 
the  gale  was  focal  at  Providence,  which  is  about  80  miles  to  the 
E.  of  Hartford,  the  wind  suddenly  drew  more  to  the  east,  and 
freshened  with  squalls  of  rain,  and  soon  after  shifted  suddenly  to 
about  "W.  by  N.,  and  blew  for  a  half  hour  or  more  with  consider- 
able violence,  resembling  in  that  respect  the  action  of  the  Har- 
rison tornado,  at  the  point  of  its  loop,  at  the  house  of  Mr.  Laird 
as  described  by  Prof.  Stoddard. 

That  storm  of  September  8th,  1869,  was  very  violent  in  Rhode 
Island  and  Massachusetts,  and  I  subsequently  watched  the  marine 
reports  of  the  New  York  newspapers,  for  the  purpose  of  tracing 
its  progress  from  the  tropics.  The  gale  was  felt  from  the  north- 
ward, in  Cuba  on  the  6th,  but  was  not  severe.  The  next  notice  I 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  357 

found  of  it  was  from  the  report  of  the  Fanny  Lincoln  at  Boston, 
which  took  the  gale  in  lat.  29°,  long.  79°  30',  on  the  7th.  The 
schooner  Anna  A.  Holcomb  from  St.  Martins,  had  the  gale  Sep- 
tember 7th,  lat.  31°,  long.  73°,  from  the  S.E.,  lasting  twelve  hours. 
The  steamer  Saragossa,  had  the  gale  on  the  7th  at  Charleston 
Bar  from  the  N.E.  The  schooner  Emma  D.  Fenny  had  the 
gale  September  8th,  lat.  33°,  long.  75°,  from  the  N.E.  The 
schooner  Ben  Borland  had  the  gale  September  8th,  lat.  35°  8', 
long.  72°,  from  S.S.E.  to  S.S.W.  The  schooner  Julia  D.  had  the 
hurricane  on  the  8th,  lat.  36°  30',  long.  73°.  The  bark  Hannah 
H.  had  the  hurricane  on  the  8th,  lat.  37°  40',  long.  73°.  Ship 
Tamerlane  had  the  hurricane  on  the  8th,  lat.  39°  47',  long.  70° 
19'.  Bark  Joanna  Kepler  had  the  gale  Sept.  8th,  lat.  40°  25', 
long.  70°  30',  from  S.S.E.  Schooner  Hartstein  had  the  gale  the 
same  day  off  Montauk  point.  And  it  crossed  Rhode  Island  and 
Massachusetts  in  the  afternoon  and  evening  of  the  same  day,  and 
the  next  was  felt  severely  on  the  coast  of  Maine  and  Nova  Scotia. 
These  notices  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  hurricane  came 
from  the  north  of  Cuba  on  the  6th,  and  moved  rapidly  up  in  a 
N.N.E.  direction,  crossing  Rhode  Island  and  eastern  Massachu- 
setts on  the  8th,  where  it  was  very  destructive,  unroofing  build- 
ings, throwing  down  steeples  and  uprooting  trees.  Its  path  lay 
between  long.  75°  and  80°,  at  lat.  29°  and  between  70°  and  75° 
at  lat.  40°.  At  some  points  in  its  progress  the  wind  was  N.E., 
on  its  left  front,  but  whether  all  the  way  while  upon  the  ocean,  the 
accounts  are  too  meagre  to  enable  us  to  determine.  On  its  right 
the  lateral  wind  was  everywhere  from  E.S.E.  around  by  the  S. 
After  it  entered  upon  Rhode  Island  the  lateral  winds  were  S.E. 
or  W.S.W.  I  passed  from  Boston  through  Providence,  and  over 
the  Shore  Line  Railroad  home  some  weeks  afterwards,  and  looked 
carefully  for  its  effects.  Between  Boston  and  Providence,  most 
of  the  prostrated  trees  lay  with  their  tops  to  the  N.W.  From  a 
little  this  side  of  Providence,  along  the  shore  the  prostrations 
were  nearly  all  towards  the  N.E.  or  E.N.E.  I  have  no  doubt 
but  that  the  hurricane  was  like  that  of  September,  1821,  semi- 
revolving,  pursuing  a  path  about  100  miles  farther  east,  and  in 


358  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

form  like  the  next  preceding  diagram,  and  that  it  lost  that  semi- 
revolving  character  as  soon  as  it  entered  over  the  land  upon 
Rhode  Island. 

The  European  Meteorologists  seem  generally  to  adopt  the  idea 
that  the  European  gales  all  revolve,  conforming  to  the  theories  of 
Mr.  Redfield,  Mr.  Piddington  and  others.  Prof.  Henry  and  our 
own  meteorologists  adopt  the  theory  of  Prof.  Espy.  There  is  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  truth  in  both  theories.  There  is,  as  we  have  seen. 
a  class  of  semi-revolving  storms,  but  they  arc  not  frequent. 
Nearly  all  the  storms  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  and  most  of 
those  in  the  Northern,  are  more  or  less  elliptical,  with  the  right 
hand  lateral  wind  blowing  at  right  angles  or  obliquely  across  the 
front  and  front  portion  of  the  storm,  and  the  left  hand  lateral 
wind  blowing  in  like  manner  across  its  rearward  portion  and  rear. 
The  straight  line  northeasters  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and 
the  corresponding  straight  line  southeasters  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, are  comparatively  infrequent  except  in  a  few  localities,  and 
under  special  circumstances.  What  they  are  has  been  sufficiently 
shown. 

Of  the  great  central  organization,  little  need  here  be  said.  It 
is  simple  in  its  elements,  and  we  have  hereinbefore  analyzed  them 
with  care  and  at  sufficient  length. 

Having  thus  as  carefully,  and  critically  as  our  limits  permit, 
examined  the  structure  of  the  special  and  general  organizations 
constituting  the  atmospheric  system,  and  the  mode  of  operation 
and  phenomena  peculiar  to  each,  we  come  now  to  inquire  what 
inference  they  authorize  in  relation  to  the  organizing  and  motive 
force  of  the  system.  What  agent  is  it  that  creates  the  general 
and  special  organizations  and  controls  their  action  and  mode  of 
operation  ? 

We  see  that  each  organization  has  its  law,  and  that  the  whole 
is  governed  by  a  controlling  agency ;  we  see  too  that  this  agent  has 
IMMENSE  POWER  ;  that  it  is  capable  of  moving  the  atmosphere 
or  exerting  a  force  equivalent  to  moving  it,  at  the  rate  of  682 
miles  per  hour.  What  power  is  there  in  nature  adequate  to  pro- 
duce such  results  ?  Meteorologists  say  that  it  is  produced  by  the 


TH3    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  359 

ascensive  force  of  heated  air,  but  when  we  come  to  inquire  into 
the  strength  of  that  ascensive  force,  we  find  it  is  but  the  infinites- 
imal power,  even  in  air  confined  so  as  to  prevent  the  operation  of 
the  laws  of  expansion  and  diffusion,  and  when  heated  100°  above 
the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air,  of  but  ^  of  an  oz.  to  the 
square  foot.  We  further  see  that  some  of  the  greatest  exhibitions 
of  that  force  have  been  made  in  limited  tornadoes  and  hurricanes 
where  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  below  70°,  AND  NO  CON- 
TRAST BETWEEN  THAT  AND  THE  SURROUNDING  AIR  EXISTED 

and  the  exertion  of  ANY  ASCENSIONAL  FORCE  WHATEVER  was 
UTTERLY  IMPOSSIBLE.  In  the  light  of  such  facts  and  all  the  other 
facts  we  have  noticed,  the  Halley  theory  becomes  mere  "  trum- 
pery and  trash." 

Prof.  Henry  and  a  few  other  meteorologists  in  this  country, 
undertake  to  account  for  the  awful  exhibitions  of  organizing  and 
motive  force,  by  attributing  it  to  an  increase  of  ascensive  power, 
derived  from  the  condensation  of  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  by 
the  expansion  of  the  air,  as  it  attains  a  higher  elevation,  and  an 
increase  of  momentum.  The  following  is  his  doctrine  as  bor- 
rowed from  Espy  and  scattered  broadcast  over  the  country  in  the 
Patent  Office  Report  for  1858. 

"  As  a  general  rule,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  an  ex- 
tended storm,  during  winter,  the  surface  current  is  from  the  S.W. 
or  some  southerly  direction,  the  temperature  rises,  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  diminishes  as  indicated  by  the  fall  of  the  barom- 
eter. This  state  may  continue  for  several  days,  and  we  think 
it  is  produced  by  the  southerly  current,  increasing  in  quantity,  in 
velocity  and  depth,  thereby  rendering  the  stratum  of  air  next  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth  abnormally  warm  and  moist,  and  conse- 
quently lighter,  while  the  upper  current  remaining  the  same,  the 
atmosphere  above  the  surface  of  the  earth  gradually  assumes  a 
state  of  tottering  equilibrium.  This  condition,  according  to  Mr. 
Espy,  is  not  brought  about  by  the  gradual  diminution  of  the  den- 
sity of  the  lower  stratum,  but  by  the  increased  density  of  the 
upper  strata,  due  to  the  radiation  into  space  of  the  latent  caloric 
which  has  been  evolved  during  a  previous  storm.  This  instabil- 
ity or  tottering  equilibrium  will  first  take  place  at  the  far  west? 


360  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

on  the  western  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  since,  as  we 
have  said  before,  the  commotions  on  the  western  side  can  slowly 
be  propagated  across  the  high  mountain  system.  A  storm  then 
consists  of  the  ascent  of  the  lower  current  into  the  upper,  and  the 
gradual  transfer  of  the  commotion  of  the  air  eastward.  To  take 
the  simplest  case,  let  us  suppose  the  storm  to  be  of  circumscribed 
character,  like  that  of  a  water-spout  or  thunder  storm.  In  this 
case,  after  the  unstable  equilibrium  has  been  produced,  the  slight- 
est disturbance,  such  as  the  passage  of  the  lower  current  over  a 
slight  elevation,  or  over  ground  more  highly  heated  than  the  ad- 
joining, will  tend  to  establish  an  upward  current.  The  light, 
warm  and  moist  air  below  will  be  buoyed  up  with  great  rapidity, 
and  as  it  ascends  will  come  under  less  pressure,  and  will  expand 
into  a  larger  bulk.  If  it  were  perfectly  dry  it  would  again  be  in 
equilibrium,  its  bulk  would  be  increased,  its  density  would  be 
diminished  to  that  of  the  air  to  which  it  had  ascended,  and  its 
temperature  would  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  surrounding  stratum. 
But  since  it  contains  moisture,  and  in  expanding  becomes  colder, 
a  portion  of  the  vapor  will  be  condensed,  and  in  this  condensa- 
tion will  give  out  its  latent  heat.  Hence  the  air  of  the  column 
will  be  warmer  than  that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere ;  it  will 
consequently  rise  to  a  greater  height,  again  expand,  again  become 
colder ;  another  portion  of  vapor  will  be  condensed,  and  another 
amount  of  latent  heat  evolved,  and  so  on  ;  the  air  will  rush  up 
with  accelerated  velocity,  and  probably  gather  momentum  suffi- 
cient to  carry  it  to  a  height  greater  than  that  due  to  its  buoyancy 
alone.  The  condensed  vapor  will  fall  in  rain  through  the  base  of  the 
cloud ;  on  either  side  the  air  of  the  storm  will  be  forced  out  from 
the  uprising  column  into  the  surrounding  air,  and  while  the  pres- 
sure at  the  base  of  the  column  will  be  diminished,  that  on  each 
side  will  be  increased;  hence  the  barometer  will  be  frequently 
found  to  rise  slightly  before  the  approach  of  a  storm,  and  to  sink 
rapidly  as  the  center  of  the  uprising  column  approaches  the  place 
of  observation."  ***** 

The  following  is  the  figure  and  description  by  which  he  illus- 
trated the  forego'ng  theory  in  relation  to  the  tornado  : 


THE  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM. 
FIG.  53. 


3G1 


"The  tremendous  ascensional  power  which  is  exhibited  in 
storms  of  this  kind,  although  almost  exceeding  belief,  is  neverthe- 
less in  accordance  with  the  established  dynamical  principle  of  the 
accumulation  of  momentum  in  cases  of  the  continued  action  of  a 
constant  force.  We  are  all  familiar  with  the  velocity  given  to  an 
arrow,  by  a  simple  propulsion  of  the  breath  along  the  interior  of 
a  blow-gun.  In  this  case,  the  air  presses  against  the  end  of  the 
arrow,  at  first  with  just  sufficient  force  to  move  it ;  but  the  mo- 
mentum it  has  thus  acquired  is  retained,  it  receives  another  pres- 
sure from  the  air,  retains  the  effect  of  this,  and  so  on,  until  it 
leaves  the  other  end  of  the  tube  with  the  accumulated  momen- 
tum acquired  during  its  whole  passage  through  the  interior  of  the 
gun.  In  the  same  way  the  air,  as  it  approaches  the  uprising  col- 
umn below,  commences  its  ascent  with  an  amount  of  momentum 
which  is  constantly  increased  by  continued  pressure  behind." 

The  foregoing  is  substantially  the  theory  promulgated,  ex-cathe- 
dra and  semi-officially,  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, in  the  Patent  Office  Report  for  1858,  and  in  a  lecture  be- 
fore the  American  Association  at  Springfield,  August,  1859,  and 
endorsed  by  Prof.  Loomis  and  an  associated  clique  of  meteorolo- 
gists. It  is  doubtless  in  their  estimation,  to  use  the  characteristic 


362  TilE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

language  of  Prof.  Henry,  "  a  scientific  generalization  deduced  by 
the  profound  reflections  of  men  who  think,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  who  act"*  The  italics  are  his,  not  mine.  But  in  my  judg- 
ment, and  that  of  many  other  practical,  intelligent  men  whom  I 
might  name,  it  is  inexcusable  error.  Let  us  examine  it  and  see 
if  this  language  is  either  too  strong  or  in  bad  taste. 

I.  The  theory  purports  to  be  applicable  to  winter  storms  and 
tornadoes.     It  assumes  an  abnormal  warm  and  moist  state  of  the 
surface  atmosphere  in  all  cases,  produced  by  the  flowing  in  of  a 
warm  surface  current  from  the  tropics.     How  then,  it  may  be 
asked,  are  we  to  account  for  the  origin  and  continuance  of  the 
cold  northeast  snow  storm,  commencing  and  continuing  to  the  end 
with  a  thermometer  many  degrees  below  the  freezing  point  ?    The 
question  cannot  be  answered,  or  the  contingency  provided  for,  by 
the  theory,  and  there  is  a  fundamental  error  at  the  start. 

Again,  it  is  untrue,  that  the  warm  southerly  air  which  consti- 
tutes the  southern  lateral  current  of  the  winter  storm,  flows  up 
from  the  tropics,  covering  the  country,  before  the  storm  originates. 
It  is  an  incidental,  connected,  and  essential  part  and  element  of  an 
organization,  as  we  have  already  seen  and  shall  presently  see 
again,  existing  under  a  portion  only,  and  traveling  as  part  of  a 
whole.  The  southeast  trades  sometimes  extend  up  over  the  West 
Indies  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  into  the  Mississippi  Valley  in 
midsummer,  as  we  have  seen,  and  as  surface  winds,  but  the  north- 
east trades  prevail  at  the  surface  in  the  West  Indies  and  Gulf 
in  winter,  and  the  southeast  trades  which  reach  us,  come  not  as 
surface  currents,  but  as  the  upper  trade  of  the  second  story,  as 
any  one  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  act  as  well  as  think,  may 
readily  see.  That  upper  trade  was  thus  seen  by  Mr.  Fendler, 
flowing  over  the  surface  trade  8,000  or  more  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  coming  towards  us,  as  he  stood  on  the  mountains  of 
Venezuela.  It  has  been  visible  in  every  winter  storm  which  has 
crossed  the  country  since  its  settlement.  That  assumption  is  also 
demonstrably  untrue. 

II.  The  next  prominent  idea  of  the  paragraph  is  that  the  exist- 
ence of  this  warm  stratum  of  air  next  the  surface,  is  accompanied 

*  Patent  Office  Report,  1857,  p.  421. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  3G3 

at  the  same  lime  by  an  abnormally  cold  and  dense  state  of  all  the 
atmosphere  above  it,  produced  by  "  radiation  into  space  of  the 
latent  caloric  which  had  been  evolved  during  a  previous  storm." 

The  idea  of  an  abnormally  cold  state  of  the  upper  atmosphere 
is  sheer  assumption  unsupported  by  any  fact,  and  contrary  to 
many  known  facts,  as  we  shall  see.  The  upper  atmosphere  or 
third  story  is  always  colder  materially  than  that  of  the  surface. 
Aeronauts  cannot  live  where  its  peculiar  cloud,  the  cirrus,  forms. 
Moreover  in  winter  storms  the  surface  atmosphere  is  not  abnorm- 
ally warm.  It  is  always  below  the  freezing  point  in  continuous 
snow  storms,  and  sometimes  at  or  near  zero.  It  rarely  rises  above 
60°  in  the  focus  of  winter  thaws.  There  is  then  no  evidence  of, 
nor  a  possibility  of,  such  an  abnormal  contrast  of  temperature  as 
is  assumed.  And  suppose  there  was,  what  then?  What  and 
wheie  is  the  totter? 

If  the  upper  atmosphere  and  all  of  it  above  is  abnormally  cold 
and  dense,  over  an  extended  surface,  will  it  not  press  to  the  same 
extent  and  equally  on  the  inferior  stratum  ?  How  then  can  a  small 
portion  of  either  tofter  ?  That  idea  is  both  absurd  and  untrue. 

III.  The  next  prominent  idea  is  that  this  tottering  equilibrium 
takes  place,  and  the  storm  originates   on  the  plains  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.     This  too  is  demonstrably  untrue.     Storms  in 
the  winter  season  do  not  originate  there.     Those  plains,  and  all 
the  country  east  and  northeast  of  them  to  the  95th  meridian,  and 
the  northwestern   states  still  further  east  are  in  their  dry  season 
in  the  winter,  and  do  not  receive  an  average  of  more   than   two 
inches  of  rain  or  snow  for  the   three   winter  months,  as  we  have 
seen  on  the  diagram,  page  89.     Where  the  storms  originate  dur- 
ing that  season,  and  how  they  travel,  has  been   hereinbefore  de- 
monstrated.    Prof.  Henry  might  have  learned  both  if  he  had  con- 
sulted the  charts  of  Prof.  Espy,  the  Army  Meteorological  Regis- 
ter, the  Climatology  of  Mr.   Blodgett,  or  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Weather. 

IV.  The  next  prominent  idea  is  that  a  storm  is  constituted  by 
the  tottering  ascent  of  the  surface  atmosphere  into  the  atmosphere 
above  in  consequence  of  an  unstable  equilibrium  in  relation  to 


364 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


temperature,  between  the  surface  stratum  and  the  rest  of  the  at- 
mosphere above  it,  and  that  this  i  ?  a  mere  mechanical  effect — a 
mere  "  commotion "  as  he  terms  it,  and  that  all  clouds  are  pro- 
duced by  condensation  consequent  upon  such  ascent. 

That  this  idea  is  untrue  and  absurd,  and  that  such  ascent  never 
takes  place  in  large  volume  or  rapidly,  is  shown  conclusively  by 
all  the  evidence  we  have  accumulated. 

But  there  is  a  further  view  of  the  matter  which  should  not  be 
overlooked.  The  theory  involves  as  a  consequence,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  single  mass  or  stratum  of  cloud  of  uniform  appearance, 
character,  and  function.  The  following  diagram  is  also  given 
by  him  fo  show  the  structure  of  a  winter  stoi  in : 


But  such  a  storm  never  existed.  No  man  living  or  dead  ever 
saw  one,  or  ever  will.  It  is  a  closet  conception.  Now  let  us  turn 
back  and  look  again  at  a  winter  storm  as  produced  by  the  Cre- 
ator, and  as  represented  by  Fig.  41,  on  page  313,  and  as  I  have 
seen  them  a  thousand  times,  and  note  the  difference.  Read  also 
again  the  following  description  by  Professor  Stoddard  of  the 
storm  at  Brandon,  in  January,  1854. 

The  barometer  fell  gradually  during  the  19th,  and  rapidly  on 
the  20th,  and  at  12.40  M.,  the  time  when  the  storm  began  at  Ox- 
ford, it  stood  28.21 — lower  than  at  any  period  during  the  last 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  365 

twelve  months.  The  air  was  saturated  with  vapor,  and  the  walls 
of  brick  buildings  were  dripping  with  moisture.  Three  strata  of 
clouds  were  distinctly  observed — the  highest  cirri,  light  and  fleecy, 
moving  toward  the  N.E. — the  second,  the  proper  storm  cloud,  in 
dark,  heavy  masses,  moving  rapidly  in  the  same  direction — the 
third  and  lowest,  the  scud  of  sailors,  flitting  violently  past,  a  little 
east  of  north.  Along  the  track  of  this  wind,  there  were  at  dif- 
ferent times  during  the  day,  violent  rains,  vivid  lightning,  and 
heavy  thunder,  though  not  in  great  quantity.  In  the  N.E.  part 
of  the  state  the  storm  assumed  the  form  of  a  tornado  of  great 
violence." 

Such  is  a  storm  as  organized  by  the  Creator.  Meteorologists 
utterly  fail  to  comprehend  it.  Now  note  the  difference.  The 
storm  as  it  exists  in  the  '"profound  reflection  "  of  such  meteorolo- 
gists, consists  of  an  ascending  column  of  arr,  spreading  out  like 
an  umbrella  overhead,  with  condensation  consequent  upon  expan- 
sion and  reduction  of  temperature,  with  a  single  cloud  stratum  or 
mass,  of  homogeneous  character,  appearance,  and  color.  The 
storm  of  the  Creator  consists  of  three  strata,  each  having  its  pe- 
culiar cloud-formation,  and  each  description  of  cloud  differing  in 
form,  appearance,  and  FUNCTION.  What  those  strata  and  their  ap- 
pearance are,  you  have  frequently  learned  from  me,  and  you  now 
learn  from  Prof.  Stoddard.  And  it  is  open  to  the  observation  of 
these  men  of  "  profound  reflection,"  if  they  would  but  appreciate 
their  duty  as  public  teachers,  and  become  observers  of  the  book 
of  nature  which  is  open  before  them,  that  the  general  storm  be- 
gins, not  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  in  tlie  formation  of  cirrus 
cloud  in  the  upper  story,  and  long  before  the  surface  story  becomes 
warm  and  moist  and  the  supposed  unstable  equilibrium  occurs. 

V.  The  next  idea  is  that  the  tornadoes  commence  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  and  in  consequence  of  a  limited  portion  of  the 
surface  atmosphere  passing  over  some  heated  surface,  or  coming 
in  contact  with  some  "  slight  elevation  " — for  aught  we  are  told,  a 
horse-block  or  corn-crib — and  being  in  unstable  equilibrium,  is 
thereby  made  to  totter  (which  in  common  language  I  suppose 
means  to  trip  and  stagger )  upwards  "  with  great  rapidity,"  its 


366  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

vapor  condensing,  after  it  arrives  in  the  upper  cold  stratum,  and 
its  progress  increasing  from  the  evolution  of  Latent  heat  and  the 
acquisition  of  momentum  until  it  spreads  itself  out  above  as  rep- 
resented in  the  diagram,  and  thus  the  tornado  is  produced. 

Now  here  we  have  another  of  those  extraordinary  conceptions 
of  a  "  profound  reflection,"  which  is  in  opposition  to  all  observed 
truth  as  heretofore  developed,  and  contains  several  intrinsic  and 
fatal  errors. 

The  first  is,  that  the  tornado  does  not  commence  at  tne  earth, 
but  forms  at  the  inferior  surface  of  the  stratus  clouds  of  the  second 
story,  and  extends  downward  to  the  earth,  sometimes  reaching  it, 
and  sometimes  not ;  sometimes  after  reaching  it  drawing  itself 
back,  breaking  its  connection  with  the  earth,  and  subsequently 
elongating  downward  again,  and  renewing  that  connection,  and 
ending  by  drawing  itself  up  gradually,  and  ceasing  at  last,  at  its 
place  of  beginning,  the  undisturbed  stratus  cloud.  Between  a 
commencement  at  the  cloud,  one  or  two  thousand  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  an  extension  downward,  and  a  com- 
mencement at  the  earth,  by  staggering  against  some  slight  eleva- 
tion and  sweating  upwards,  practical  men  cannot  avoid  seeing  an 
irreconcilable  and  fatal  antagonism.  Perhaps  Prof.  Henry  does 
not  see  it.  He  will  live  to  see,  and  I  hope  correct,  his  error. 

In  the  second  place,  the  theory  requires  for  the  acquisition  of 
the  required  tremendous  force,  a  condensation  in  the  upper  strata, 
and  the  acquisition  of  momentum  by  progress  there,  its  ascent 
through  the  surface  atmosphere  being  due  to  the  totter  or  stagger 
alone.  But  the  greatest  exhibition  of  force  is  in  fact  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  when  the  distinctly  marked  apex  of  the  spout  comes 
in  contact  with  it,  and  before  any  ascensional  force  can  be  organ- 
ized by  the  evolution  of  heat,  or  any  additional  force  by  the  or- 
ganization of  momentum,  and  when  there  is  no  force  applied  but 
the  tripping  caused  by  a  "  slight  elevation,"  or  a  "  heated  spot." 
Moreover,  neither  the  "  slight  elevation  "  nor  the  heated  spot  are 
found  at  sea,  where  the  water  spout  is  seen  desending  from  the 
cloud  and  acting  with  equal  apparent  violence. 

These  two  facts  are  sufficient  disproof  of  the  f  th  idea  also,  and 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  867 

it  must  be  apparent  to  the  reader  in  view  of  these  facts  and  all 
the  other  facts  developed  in  this  volume  bearing  with  equal  force 
on  the  point,  that  there  is  not  a  healthful  or  truthful  spot  in 
any  part  of  the  theory,  or  of  the  cited  paragraphs,  and  that  I 
have  not  characterized  it  too  strongly  by  the  language  which  I 
used.  The  figures,  too,  are  caricatures,  and  that  fact,  as  well  as 
the  utter  un truthfulness  of  the  descriptions,  Prof.  Henry  might 
easily  have  learned  by  a  few  weeks  actual  observation,  or  a  just 
regard  for  the  testimony  of  those  who  had  tested  them,  which  he 
had  before  him.  In  sending  them  to  the  country  untested  and  as 
unquestioned  truths,  he  failed,  in  my  judgment,  to  appreciate  the 
responsibilities  of  his  position. 

Let  no  man  say  I  am  unjust  or  err  in  this.  Pi  of.  Henry  fills 
a  public  office,  and  is  amenable  to  public  criticism.  When  he 
sent  the  Espy  an  theories  to  the  country  with  his  endorsement,  he 
had  before  him  conclusive  evidence  of  their  falsity  in  the  cited 
work  of  Prof.  Coffin,  and  observations  of  Mr.  Fendler,— in  the 
published  assertions  of  Mr.  Redfield,  that  he  found  the  caloric 
theory  untrue ;  in  a  demonstration  of  the  same  fact  in  the  "  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Weather  ' "  in  the  investigations  of  Hare,  Peltier, 
Faraday,  and  others ;  and  in  my  published  statement,  that  I  had 
watched  for  the  claimed  uprising  currents  for  thirty  years,  and 
blew  they  never  occurred, — but  he  ignored  it  all.  Such  errors, 
from  such  men,  should  be  stripped  of  influence  as  authority. 

There  is  a  prevalent  error  upon  this  subject  which  should  be 
reformed.  There  are  many  intelligent  scientists  in  the  country 
who  know  and  admit  that  the  Halley  theory  is  untrue,  and  the 
public  deceived,  but  because  its  advocates  are  many  and  power- 
ful in  position,  they  shrink  in  weakness  and  cowardice  from  a  con- 
test with  it.  The  late  Mr.  Redfield  was  one  of  those  men.  For 
the  sake  of  peace,  he  avoided  all  allusion  to  the  cause  of  storms 
in  his  publications,  and  confined  his  inquiry  to  the  question,  "what 
are  storms,"  evading  the  question,  "  how  are  storms  produced." 
Near  the  close  of  his  life,  in  two  notes  to  his  articles  on  the  Cuba 
Hurricane,  he  gives  us  an  inkling  of  his  views,  and  his  reasons 


368  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

for  his  reticence.  The  first  occurs  in  the  January  number,  1846, 
page  13,  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  in  which, 
after  giving  an  extended  account  of  the  winds  and  cloud  currents 
within  the  tropics,  he  adds  : 

"  These,  with  a  vast  extension  of  similar  phenomena,  merit  the 
serious  attention  of  those  naturalists  who  rest  on  the  caloric  theory 
of  the  general  and  trade  winds ;  and  they  seem  fully  to  account 
for  the  northwesterly  courses  of  storms  in  the  West  Indies." 

Again  in  the  September  number  of  the  same  year,  he  says  in 
another  note : 

"  It  may  be  proper  again  to  state,  that  the  results  of  the  author's 
inquiries  on  the  courses  of  winds  and  their  relations  to  tempera- 
ture, in  different  regions  and  at  different  elevations,  have  con- 
strained him  to  relinquish  the  common  theory  that  heat  is  the  sole 
or  main  cause  of  wind  or  progressive  motion  in  a  planetary  at- 
mosphere. He  has  been  aware  of  the  disadvantage  in  which  this 
avowal  may  tend  to  place  him,  in  the  minds  of  many  votaries  of 
science  whose  approbation  it  would  be  his  happiness  to  obtain. 
The  proper  elucidation  of  this  question,  he  conceives,  will  belong 
to  the  future." 

And  he  closed  a  later  article  by  saying,  "  That  the  current 
theory  or  hypothesis  for  explaining  the  general  winds  of  the  globe 
is  essentially  erroneous,  and  defective  in  its  application,  and  greatly 
obstructs  the  path  of  scientific  enquiry." 

Now  in  my  judgment  the  interest  of  society  demanded  that  a 
current  theory  which  obstructed  the  path  of  scientific  enquiry  in  re- 
lation to  so  important  a  matter,  should  be  forthwith  attacked,  and 
by  any  and  every  fact,  and  by  any  and  every  person  who  pos- 
sessed the  necessary  information  wherewith  to  attack  it ;  and  it 
was  the  duty  of  Mr.  Redfield,  because  more  than  any  other  man 
possessed  of  such  information,  to  grapple  with  it  to  the  death.  And 
it  was  a  weakness,  to  hesitate  through  fear  of  losing  the  approba- 
tion of  those  who  sustained  it. 

At  any  rate  such  was  my  conviction  and  sense  of  duty  as  I  sat 
listening  to  the  jumble  of  fallacies  which  Prof.  Henry  detailed  in 
his  lecture  at  Springfield,  when  there  was  convincing  and  con- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  369 

elusive  evidence  that  such  was  their  character,  in  sight  from  his 
position  and  nrne,  and  within  2,000  feet  of  us,  and  I  obeyed  the 
impulse  of  that  sense  of  duty  when  I  denounced  it  as  such  to 
the  audience,  and  made  then  and  there  a  challenge  which  I  after- 
wards renewed  in  the  newspapers  in  the  following  form  : 

"I  desire  to  renew  it  (the  challenge)  in  the  following  precise 
and  distinct  form ;  I  propose  to  meet  Prof.  Henry  or  Prof.  Loomis, 
or  both  of  them,  before  a  board  of  three  persons,  mutually  chosen, 
sometime  in  June  or  July  of  next  year,  for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing the  po-ition  taken  by  Prof.  Henry  in  his  lecture,  and  endorsed 
by  Prof.  Loomis.  On  such  discussion  I  will  assume  the  burden 
of  disproving  them,  by  proving  the  following  propositions,  viz: 

First,  the  normal  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  is  not  a  series 
of  systems  as  alleged  in  the  lecture,  and  shown  on  the  diagrams, 
but  consists  of  one  universal,  unchanging  system,  with  its  base 
at  the  atmospheric  equator,  and  its  apex  at  the  poles. 

Second,  that  the  assertion  that  the  air,  the  earth,  or  the  water, 
are  hotter  under  the  belt  of  condensation  between  the  trades,  and 
where  the  air  is  supposed  to  be  rising  and  sucking  in  the  adjoin- 
ing air,  thereby  making  the  trades,  is  without  foundation.  The 
fact  is  demonstrably  the  other  way. 

Third,  The  Halley  theory  in  all  its  parts  and  however  applied, 
is  shown  by  conclusive  data  to  be  an  error. 

Fourth,  There  is  not  an  "  immense  amount  of  latent  heat " 
developed  during  the  formation  of  a  cloud,  which  heats  the  air  and 
causes  it  to  rise. 

Fifth,  That  storms  and  wind  are  not  produced  by  currents  of 
uprising  air,  and  the  Espyan  theory  advanced  by  Prof.  Henry  and 
endorsed  by  Prof.  Loomis,  is  demonstrably  untrue. 

And  I  propose  to  deposit  with  the  umpires,  $500,  of  which 
$100  is  to  be  paid  over  to  the  Professors  or  either  of  them,  for 
each  and  every  one  of  the  foregoing  propositions  I  shall  fail  to 
maintain. 

I  thus  give  the  gentlemen  every  advantage  ;  I  ask  for  myself 
only  an  opportunity  to  present  the  truth  and  develop  the  subject 
in  sucji  a  manner  and  under  such  circumstances,  that  it  cannot  be 
17 


370  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

smothered  in  order  to  give  one  man  an  opportunity  to  monopolize 
discovery  and  '  live  in  science,'  to  the  detriment  of  the  country." 

That  challenge  the  gentlemen  did  not  accept,  and  I  renew  it. 

Doubtless  that  discussion  and  challenge  placed  me  at  a  disad- 
vantage, as  Mr.  Redfield  expressed  it,  with  the  votaries  of  science, 
but  that,  which  seems  to  have  been  an  important  matter  with  him, 
was  unimportant  to  me.  My  happiness  did  not  rest  on  their  appro- 
bation, but  then,  as  ever,  in  respect  to  my  public  conduct,  in  the 
consciousness  of  having  done  my  duty  to  the  community. 

That  fearless  attack  upon  a  pernicious  error,  has  not  been  with- 
out its  fruit.  In  the  minds  of  a  great  many  men,  that  error  then 
received  a  death  wound  ;  and  I  have  a  stack  of  letters,  many  of 
them  from  some  of  the  best  minds  in  the  country,  thanking  me 
for  the  discussion.  Ten  years  have  gone  by,  and  neither  in  lec- 
ture nor  essay,  have  those  gentlemen  or  any  others,  appeared  be- 
fore the  public  to  vindicate  the  theory.  "  Truth  is  mighty  and 
will  prevail." 

If,  as  I  think,  it  conclusively  appears  from  the  foregoing  ex- 
amination and  all  that  has  been  hereinbefore  adduced,  that  there 
is  one  general,  organized,  atmospheric  system,  consisting  of  one 
great  central  organization  with  minor,  connected  systems  of 
special  organizations,  from  which  all  the  atmospheric  phenomena 
result,  and  the  major  and  minor  organizations  have  a  common  law, 
and  are  organized  and  controlled  by  a  common  force,  we  come 
directly  to  one  of  the  most  important  unsolved  problems  of  the 
science.  What  is  that  force  ? 

That  it  emanates  from  or  is  excited  by  the  sun,  we  cannot 
doubt.  The  annual  transits  of  the  system,  from  north  to  south 
and  from  south  to  north,  are  conclusive  of  that.  So  are  the 
diurnal  changes  which  follow  his  path.  Right  here,  let  us  look 
at  those  diurnal  changes  and  learn  the  lesson  which  they  teach. 
The  following  diagram  exhibits  the  character  of  those  changes 
during  a  summer  day,  when  no  disturbing  causes  are  in  opera- 
tion at  the  point;  no  storm  existing  within  influential  distance, 
and  there  is  no  unusual  intensity  or  irregular  action  of  the  ope- 
rating force  or  forces.  Let  us,  I  repeat,  look  carefully  at  the  dia- 
gram, and  see  what  lesson  it  teaches. 


THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


371 


FIG.  55. 


.  jf. 


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S 

Barometer 

x* 

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"^x 

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Thermometer 

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s^\. 

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x. 

^X 

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Ftectrfo 
Tension 

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declination 

x^ 

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Horizontal 

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Fores 

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/ 

372  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

The  day  may  be  said  to  commence  in  midsummer  at  4  A.  M. 
The  atmospheric  day  does  at  all  seasons.  At  that  hour  the  ba- 
rometer is  at  its  morning  minimum.  It  has,  as  we  have  said,  a 
perceptible  diurnal  variation  of  two  maxima  and  two  minima.  Its 
periods  of  depression  are  at  4  A.M.,  and  4  P.M.,  and  of  elevation 
at  10  A.M,  and  10  P.M.  The  difference  between  the  elevation 
and  depression  is  considerable  within  the  tropics,  where  HumboMt 
tells  us  the  hour  of  the  day  can  be  known  by  the  height  of  the 
barometer,  and  it  decreases  toward  the  poles.  At  4  A.M.  it  is  then 
at  one  of  its  minima,  and  rises  till  10  o'clock. 

At,  or  about  the  same  period,  and  sometimes  when  the  barom- 
eter is  falling,  and  previous  thereto,  there  is  a  tendency  to  fog  in 
localities  subject  to  that  condensation.  This  tendency  is  some- 
times observed  at  the  other  barometric  minimum,  late  in  the  after- 
noon or  early  in  the  evening,  but  less  frequently.  The  tendency 
to  fog  condensation  is  greatest  in  this  country  about  the  morning 
minimum.  It  seems  to  be  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  earth  ;  it 
is  confined  to  the  surface  atmosphere,  and  is  apparently  produced 
by  the  inductive  agency  of  the  negative  electricity  of  the  earth. 
It  disappears,  v/hether  it  be  high  or  low  fog,  about  the  time  when 
the  barometer  attains  its  morning  maximum,  or  about  10  A.M. 

At  about  that  period,  when  there  has  been  fog,  or  earlier,  when 
there  has  not,  and  sometimes  as  early  as  8  A.M.,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  trade  condensation — oirrus  in  mid-winter,  and  cumulus  in 
midsummer,  and,  during  the  intermediate  time,  a  tendency  to 
cirro-stratus,  partaking  more  or  less  of  the  character  of  one  or 
the  other,  according  to  the  season. 

Temperature,  in  summer,  commences  its  diurnal  elevation  about 
4  A.M.,  also,  and  rises  till  about  2  P.M.  From  that  time  it  falls 
with  very  little  variation  till  4  o'clock  the  next  morning.  It  has 
but  one  maximum  and  one  minimum  in  the  twenty-four  hours. 

As  the  morning  barometric  maximum  approaches,  and  the  heat 
increases  the  magnetic  activity,  condensation  in  the  trade  ap- 
pears, or  induced  condensation  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  sur- 
face atmosphere,  that  portion  near  the  earth  is  affected  and  at- 
tracted— and  the  "  wind  rises,5'  according  to  the  locality,  the  sea- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  373 

son,  and  the  activity  of  the  condensation.  The  tendency  to  blow 
increases  with  the  tendency  to  trade  and  cumulus  condensation, 
and  continues  till  toward  night,  when  it  gradually  dies  away,  unless 
there  be  a  storm  approaching.  As  the  heat  increases,  and  stimu- 
lates magnetism  into  activity,  the  magnetic  needle  commences 
moving  to  the  west,  its  regular  diurnal  variation,  and  continues  to 
do  so  until  about  2  P.M.,  when  it  commences  returning  to  the  east, 
and  so  continues  to  return  until  10  P.M.,  when  it  moves  west  again 
until  2  A.M.,  and  from  thence  to  the  east,  till  8  A.M. 

Similar  variations  also  take  place  in  the  horizontal  force,  as 
evinced  by  the  action  of  the  magnetometer  needle,  and  in  the 
vertical  force,  as  shown  by  the  oscillations.  So  that  it  is  evident 
that  there  are  two  maxima,  and  two  minima  of  magnetic  activity 
every  day,  shown  by  all  the  methods  by  which  we  measure  mag- 
netic action  and  force — more  than  double  at  the  acme  of  northern 
summer  transit  over  that  of  winter,  and  proceeding  pari  passu, 
with  the  other  daily  phenomena — evincing  the  same  irregular 
action  which  the  other  phenomena  evince.  Still  another  phenom- 
enon, which  has  a  daily  change,  is  el(  ctric  tension,  or  the  increase 
or  decrease  in  the  tension  of  the  positive  or  true  atmospheric 
electricity. 

The  following  table  shows  the  mean  two  hourly  tensions  for 
three  years,  at  Kew,  viz  : 

Hours 12  P.M         2  A.M         4AM.        6  A.M.         SAM.        10A.M. 

Number  of  observations G55  784  804  566     .      1,047         1,013 

Tension 226  20.1          20.6  34-2  68.2  881 

Hours 12A.M.       2  P.M        4  P.M.       6  P.M.         8  P  M.       10  P.M. 

Number  of  observations 848  858  878  874  878          1,007 

Tension 75.4  715  69.1  81.8         102.4  104 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  tension  of  electricity  is  at  a 
minimum  at  4  A.M.,  also,  that  it  rises  till  10,  falls  till  4  P.M.,  but 
not  as  rapidly,  rises  till  10,  falls  again  till  4  A.M,  or  the  close  of 
the  meteorological  day — having  two  maxima  and  minima,  as  have 
most  of  the  phenomena  thus  far  considered. 

In  order  to  see  what  the  connections  be-tween  these  ever-present, 
phenomena  are,  and  their  connection  with  other  phenomena, 


374 


THE   'ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


and  that  we  may  understand  their  normal  conditions,  I  have  traced 
them  approximately  in  the  diagram. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  other  phenomena  do  not  all  depend  upon 
temperature  merely,  if  indeed  any  of  them  do. 

Temperature  has  but  one  maximum  and  minimum,  and  that  is 
exceedingly  regular,  and  does  not  correspond  with  any  other. 

The  barometer  has  two  ;  electric  tension,  two ;  magnetic  activ- 
ity, two ;  condensation,  two — one  the  formation  of  cloud,  and  the 
other  the  formation  of  fog  and  dew ;  wind,  one — resembling  tem- 
perature in  that  respect,  but  embracing  a  much  less  period. 

Fog  forms  at  one  barometric  minimum,  and  cloud  at  another. 

Fog  forms  at  one  period  of  the  magnetic  variation,  cloud  at 
another. 

The  formation  of  cloud  corresponds  with  the  greatest  intensity 
of  magnetic  action,  and  its  associate  electricities.  But  the  oscil- 
lations of  the  barometer  do  not  correspond  with  either.  And  thus, 
then,  we  connect  them  : 


CAUSE 

Increase  of  magnetic  or  mag- 
neto electric  activity,  as  shown 
by  declination  and  increase  of 
horizontal  and  vertical  force. 


EFFECT. 

Decrease  of  pressure. 
Of  positive  electric  tension 
Of  surface  condensation,  i.e. 
fog  and  dew. 


EFFECT. 

Increase  of  primary  con- 
densation. 

Of  wind. 

Of  electrical  disturbance  and 
phenomena  in  the  trade  and 
its  vicinity. 


This  connection  is  equally  obvious  if  the  order  is  reversed— 
thus: 


CAUSE. 

Decrease  of  magnetic  or  mag- 
neto-electric activity. 


EFFECT. 

Increase  of  pressure. 

Of  tension  of  atmospheric 
electricity. 

Of  surface  condensation,  i  e 
fog  and  dew. 


EFFECT. 

Disappearance  of  primary 
condensation. 

Of  wind, and 

Of  electric  disturbance  in 
the  trade  and  its  vicinity . 


The  view  which  this  diagram  gives  us  of  the  diurnal  changes, 
shows  again  the  absurdity  of  the  Halley  theory,  and  that  there  is 
some  other  force  operating  upon  the  atmosphere,  and  affecting  the 
phenomena  beside  that  of  heat.  We  see  an  utter  want  of  all 
connection  between  the  degree  of  heat  and  the  other  changes. 
This  is  marked  in  relation  to  the  barometer,  and  we  have  seen 
before  that  the  annual  range  of  the  barometer  depended  upon  the 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  375 

position  of  the  focal  path  of  the  conditions,  and  not  upon  tem- 
perature. 

But  this  group  of  diurnal  changes,  although  they  are  instruc- 
tive, do  not  solve  the  problem,  and  the  question  still  remains. 
What  is  the  organizing  and  motive  force  of  the  system  ? 

That  it  is  not  heat,  acting  mechanically  upon  the  atmosphere, 
we  know.  What  then  is  it  ?  Remember  we  are  seeking  a  force 
which  organizes  and  controls  the  great  central  condition  which 
creates  and  continues  the  trade  winds  uninterruptedly  through  the 
night  as  through  the  day,  with  the  storms  and  the  hurricane  in 
their  bosoms  or  without  them,  to  form  the  basis  of  other  condi- 
tions, to  pursue  a  stated  and  prescribed  path,  and  to  carry 
warmth,  moisture,  and  fertility  to  their  appropriate  hemispheres. 

And  right  here  we  may  observe,  that  the  pursuit  by  the  upper 
trades  and  of  the  storms  they  embosom,  of  a  stated  and  prescribed 
path,  first  to  the  N.W.  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  to  the 
S.W.  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  curving  at  the  outer  limits  of 
the  surface  trade,  and  moving  thereafter  to  the  N.E.  in  one  hemi- 
sphere, and  the  S.E.  in  the  other,  are  important  elements  to  be 
regarded  in  the  problem.  Is  that  curvature  pursuant  to  a  law  of 
the  force,  or  is  it  the  result  of  something  else  ?  Meteorologists 
say  that  this  curvature  is  produced  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

Thus  Sir  John  Tyndall  says  : 

"  Were  the  earth  motionless,  these  two  currents  would  run  di- 
rectly north  and  south,  but  the  earth  rotates  from  west  to  east 
round  its  axis  once  in  twenty  four  hours.  In  virtue  of  this  rota- 
tion, an  individual  at  the  equator  is  carried  round  with  a  velocity 
of  1000  miles  an  hour.  You  have  observed  what  takes  place 
when  a  person  incautiously  steps  out  of  a  carriage  in  motion.  He 
is  animated  by  the  motion  of  the  carriage,  and  when  his  feet  touch 
the  earth,  he  is  thrown  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  motion. 
This  is  what  renders  leaping  from  a  railway  carriage  when  the 
train  is  at  full  speed,  almost  always  fatal.  As  we  withdraw  from 
the  equator  the  velocity  due  to  the  earth's  rotation  diminishes, 
and  becomes  nothing  at  the  poles.  It  is  proportional  to  the  radius 


376  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

of  the  parallel  of  latitude,  and  diminishes  as  these  circles  dimm- 
ish in  size.  Imagine  then,  an  individual  suddenly  transferred 
from  the  equator  to  a  place  where  the  velocity,  due  to  rotation,  is 
only  900  miles  an  hour ;  on  touching  the  earth  here  he  would  be 
thrown  forward  in  an  easterly  direction  with  a  velocity  of  100 
miles  an  hour,  this  being  the  difference  between  the  equatorial 
velocity  with  which  he  started  and  the  velocity  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face in  his  new  locality.  Similar  considerations  apply  to  the 
transfer  of  air  from  the  equatorial  to  the  northern  regions,  and 
vice  versa.  At  the  equator  the  air  possesses  the  velocity  of  the 
earth's  surface  there,  and  on  quitting  this  position,  it  not  only  has 
its  tendency  northward  to  obey,  but  also  a  tendency  to  the  east, 
and  it  must  take  a  resultant  direction.  The  farther  it  goes  north, 
the  more  it  is  deflected  from  its  original  course ;  the  more  it  turns 
toward  the  east,  the  more  it  becomes  what  we  should  call  a  west- 
erly wind.  The  opposite  holds  good  for  the  current  proceeding 
from  the  north,  this  passes  from  places  of  slow  motion  to  places 
of  quick  motion,  it  is  met  by  the  earth ;  hence  the  wind  which 
started  as  a  north  wind  becomes  a  northeast  wind,  and  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  equator,  it  becomes  more  and  more  easterly." 

Professor  Loomis  in  his  recent  treatise,  published  in  18G8, 
states  it  thus : 

"  UPPER  CURRENT  IN  THE  EQUATORIAL  REGIONS.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  surface  air  at  the  equator  is  considerably 
higher  than  it  is  over  the  parallel  of  32°,  while  near  the  upper 
limit  of  the  atmosphere,  the  temperature  must  be  nearly  the  same 
in  all  latitudes.  Now  air  is  expanded  by  heat  to  the  amount  of 
?^T  Part  °f  it§  bulk  for  each  degree  of  the  thermometer.  The 
atmosphere  over  the  equator  must  therefore  rise  somewhat  higher 
than  it  does  over  the  parallel  of  32°,  notwithstanding  the  differ- 
ence in  the  height  of  the  barometer.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest, 
the  air  thus  expanded  at  the  equator  would  flow  over  at  the  top, 
and  descend  as  along  an  inclined  plane,  toward  the  middle  lati- 
tudes. But  while  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  an  upper  current 
flows  toward  the  poles,  it  crosses  in  succession  parallels  of  lati- 
tude whose  easterly  motion  is  less  than  its  own,  and  since  it  re- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  377 

tains  the  easterly  motion  which  it  had  at  the  equator,  it  has  a 
relative  motion  from  the  west,  which  combined  with  the  first 
northerly  motion,  carries  it  toward  the  northeast.  Thus  above 
the  northeast  trade  winds  we  find  an  upper  current  moving  from 
the  southwest.  For  a  similar  reason  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
above  the  southeast  trades,  the  upper  current  moves  from  the 
northwest." 

A  substantially  similar  opinion  is  expressed  by  Prof.  Henry  in 
his  Patent  Report  compilations. 

These  gentlemen  occupy  distinguished  positions  as  scientists, 
but  we  will  remember  that  these  views,  thus  expressed  by  them, 
are  also  traditionary  assumptions  of  the  Halley  theory,  and  we 
can  and  should  fearlessly  examine  them  as  such,  regardless  of  the 
men  or  their  positions.  Let  me  ask  you  then  to  look  at  them  and 
say  whether  they  are  not  also  false  assumptions. 

Look  first  at  the  looseness  of  these  paragraphs.  They  all 
speak  of  an  ascent  and  flowing  over  at  the  equator,  meaning  the 
geographical  equator,  yet  elsewhere,  they  all,  including  Prof. 
Henry,  speak  of  this  ascent  as  between  the  trades,  and  causing 
the  belt  of  rains.  If  there  is  any  ascent  at  all,  upon  their  prin- 
ciples, it  must  be  there,  but  that  belt  of  rains — the  atmospheric 
equator  as  I  call  it — moves  north  of  the  geographical  equator  in 
summer,  and  south  of  it  in  winter.  To  say,  therefore,  that  the 
air  ascends  at  the  equator,  is  to  speak  loosely  and  inaccurately, 
and  shows  their  limited  comprehension  of  the  subject. 

Again,  as  to  the  fact  of  the  ascent,  these  paragraphs,  and  es- 
pecially that  of  Prof.  Loomis,  involve  a  gross  absurdity.  He  rep- 
resents the  atmosphere  within  the  tropics  as  fifty  miles  high,  as 
standing  four  miles  higher  there,  than  at  latitude  32° — and  the 
atmosphere  as  flowing  over  at  the  top  along  an  inclined  plane,  and 
descending  toward  the  middle  latitudes.  As  that  inclined  plane 
has  a  descent  of  four  miles,  the  elevation  of  the  overflow  at  the 
middle  latitudes,  when  it  arrives  there,  must  be  46  miles  above 
the  earth,  or  allowing  the  depth  of  the  overflow  to  be  four  miles, 
the  elevation  is  42°.  Of  course  it  could  not  constitute  the  upper 
trade,  which  Lawson  saw  at  Barbadoes,  and  Redfield  satisfied 


378  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

himself  by  extended  inquiry,  existed  all  over  the  West  Indies ; 
which  Fendler  saw  on  the  mountains  of  Venezuela,  and  which  we 
know  comes  to  us  with  its  vapor  and  its  storms,  constituting  our 
second  story,  and  giving  us  our  peculiar  climatology  and  prosper- 
ity. It  is  high  time  that  a  man  of  Prof.  Loomis'  ability  to  in- 
vestigate should  cut  loose  from  such  false  and  traditionary  theories, 
and  look  this  subject  in  the  face,  unprompted  and  uncontrolled 
by  men  who  learn  and  teach  or  compile  by  rote. 

But  the  great  question  involved  in  the  cited  paragraphs,  is 
whether  the  change  of  movement  to  the  east  is  occasioned  by  the 
rotation  of  the  earth.  And  here  at  the  outset  we  are  met  by  the 
question  which  these  gentlemen  upon  their  principles  cannot 
answer,  and  which  staggered  and  convinced  Mr.  Redfield,  viz  : 
what  occasions  the  initiatory  movement  through  20°  of  latitude  to 
the  northwestward  before  the  curvature  to  the  east  commences  f  If 
that  could  be  satisfactorily  answered  we  should  come  to  the  sharp 
point  which  is  made  by  all  of  them,  expressly  or  by  implication, 
that  the  storms  and  currents  curve  to  the  east,  by  reason  of  the 
greater  motion  which  they  derived  from  the  earth  at  the  place  of 
their  origin  at  or  near  the  equator,  than  they  have  when  they 
curve.  And  the  point  narrows  itself  and  hinges  on  the  sharp 
and  distinct  question,  whether  at  lat.  32°  or  35°,  wherever  the 
storms  or  currents  commence  to  curve,  they  "  retain,"  to  use  the 
language  of  Prof.  Loomis,  the  motion  eastward  derived  from  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  which  they  had  at  the  equator,  or  their 
place  of  beginning,  and  continue  to  retain  it  while  curving  and 
after.  Sir  John  Tyndal  assumes  that  they  do.  Disregarding  the 
fact  that  their  first  movement  is  to  the  northwest,  and  that  they 
must  thereby,  or  so  far  lose  the  velocity  they  had  at  the  place  of 
origin,  unless  they  can  be  supposed  to  carry  it,  "bottled  up  for  use," 
he  assumes  that  they  move  directly  north,  and  would  continue  to 
do  so  to  the  pole  if  they  did  not  retain  as  they  reach  more  north- 
ern parallels  the  rotary  velocity  which  they  had  at  their  place  of 
origin.  The  case  he  puts,  and  in  which  the  other  gentlemen  con- 
cur, presents  the  question  precisely  as  if  the  storm  leaped  at  a 
bound,  and  over  all  obstacles  which  could  affect  its  rotary  veloci- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  379 

ty,  from  the  equator  to  lat.  32°,  and  thus  leaping,  and  thus  re- 
taining its  equatorial  velocity  and  assuming  that  it  reaches  the 
earth  again  at  32°,  the  velocity  there  being  less,  it  is  thrown 
forward  precisely  as  a  man  is  thrown  forward  who  jumps  from 
a  railway  train.  Now  is  not  this  the  grossest  absurdity  of  the 
many  contained  in  that  conglomeration  of  gross  absurdities  known 
as  the  Halley  theory  ?  Let  us  see. 

Undoubtedly  the  rotary  velocity  of  the  earth  is  greater  at  the 
equator  than  at  32°,  and  I  do  not  question  the  accuracy  of  Prof. 
Loomis'  table  of  relative  velocities,  which  is  as  follows : 

"In  lat.    0°  the  velocity  eastward  is  1036  miles  per  hour. 
«      150         «  «  JQOO      «  « 

"  30°  "  "  897  "  " 

«  45°  «  «  732  "  " 

"  60°  "  "  518  "  " 

«  75°  «  «  268  "  " 

But  the  question  is,  does  the  storm  or  the  current  which 
changes  its  latitude,  retain  its  primary  velocity?  Does  the 
steamer  which  steams  from  the  equator  to  lat.  30°  at  the  rate  of 
250  miles  per  day,  retain  the  velocity  which  it  had  at  the  equator  ? 
We  know  it  does  not,  and  that  it  loses  that  equatorial  velocity  in- 
stant by  instant,  and  inch  by  inch,  as  it  progresses  to  the  north. 
It  has,  wherever  it  may  be,  the  velocity  of  the  water  in  which  it 
is  imbedded,  and  of  the  parallel  at  which  it  floats.  Does  the 
migratory  bird  which  takes  its  spring  flight  from  the  Gulf  coast 
of  our  country  directly  northward  to  the  upper  lakes,  at  a  speed 
of  100  miles  an  hour,  "  retain  "  at  the  lakes,  the  rotative  velocity 
which  it  had  at  the  Gulf  ?  and  when  at  night  it  rests  its  bosom 
upon  the  surface  of  the  lake,  and  folds  its  wings,  is  it  thrown  for- 
ward by  a  retained  excess  of  easterly  velocity  at  the  rate  of  200 
miles  per  hour,  and  as  if  thrown  from  a  rail  car.  We  know  it  is 
not.  The  atmosphere  through  which  it  has  projected  itself,  is  an 
aerial  ocean  which  is  retained  in  its  position  by  the  force  of  grav- 
ity as  effectually  as  the  ocean  of  water.  The  rotary  velocity  of 
its  mass  at  different  parallels,  conforms  to  that  of  the  solid  earth 


380  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

to  which  it  is  bound  by  an  attraction  which  rotation  does  not  af- 
fect, in  the  same  manner  that  the  oceans  and  rivers  conform. 
The  bird  and  the  current  and  the  storm  imbedded  in  it  and  mov- 
ing north,  are  held  and  supported  by  it  on  all  sides,  as  the  ship  is 
supported  by  the  waters,  or  the  rivers  by  their  banks,  arid  have 
at  every  instant  the  velocity  of  their  supporting  medium,  at  the 
parallel,  precisely  as  if  attached  firmly  to  the  earth. 

The  earth,  ocean,  and  atmosphere,  and  all  that  they  contain 
form  but  a  part  of  an  entire  whole,  which  revolves  as  a  whole, 
each  particle  of  each  held  in  its  place  by  the  superior  force  of 
gravitation,  and  no  particle  of  either  is  disturbed  in  its  relation  to 
other  particles  by  friction,  or  rotative  force.  If  the  doctrine 
had  not  been  deemed  an  essential  part  of  the  Halley  theory,  it 
would  have  been  abandoned  long  ago. 

There  are  many  other  considerations  which  show  that  the  doc- 
trine cannot  be  true.  The  tracks  of  different  storms  originating 
over  the  same  space,  frequently  differ  materially.  Some  curve 
at  a  very  low  latitude ;  others,  like  those  of  1821  and  1869,  pur- 
sue a  course  almost  directly  north.  Some  have  a  speed  of  4  to  6 
miles  an  hour ;  others  of  40,  60,  and  70  miles  per  hour ;  and  others 
move  at  intermediate  velocities. 

So  too  the  storms  and  currents  which  curve  on  our  continent 
over  northwestern  Mississippi,  northern  Louisiana  and  Arkansas 
in  midwinter,  when  the  central  condition  is  far  south,  curve  10° 
or  more,  and  with  broader  curve,  to  the  northwest  in  midsummer 
when  that  central  condition  is  to  the  north,  for  the  force  which 
curves  them  then  operates  so  much  further  to  the  north  and 
west. 

No,  reader,  we  cannot,  without  a  disregard  of  facts  and  self  stul- 
tification, accept  the  theories  of  these  men.  We  must  find  a 
force  capable  not  only  of  originating  the  currents  and  the  storm, 
but  of  directing  their  pathway  through  the  tropics,  the  temperate 
zones,  and  the  arctic  circle,  unaffected  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

And  we  must  find  a  force  that  is  capable  of  producing  the 
minor  organized  conditions  ;  of  directing  their  pathway,  regulat- 
ing their  intensity  and  controlling  their  effects ;  a  force  that  ere- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  381 

ates  the  cirrus  in  its  appropriate  stratum,  the  rain-bearing  slratus 
in  its  appropriate  stratum,  the  attendant  lateral  winds  and  their 
scud  in  their  stratum,  all  working  together  harmoniously  and  con- 
tinuously from  day  to  day,  scattering  warmth,  moisture,  and  fer- 
tility over  an  earth,  which  without  such  organizations  would  not 
be  habitable  for  man.  A  force  not  only  capable  of  organizing 
and  controlling  the  system  in  all  its  parts,  and  in  all  their  ordi- 
nary modes  of  operation,  but  of  exerting  those  irregular  and  awful 
manifestations  of  energy  and  power  which  we  have  contemplated. 
Now  the  agency  of  heat  being  found  insufficient,  the  question 
comes  up  to  us,  what  is  this  force  that  thus  organizes  and  con- 
trols the  system  with  an  energy  and  power  without  a  parallel  in 
the  physical  world  ?  Do  we  know  of  any  such  force  ?  Do  we 
know  of  more  than  one  ?  The  answer  to  these  questions  is,  we 
know  of  one,  and  but  one,  such  force,  and  that  one  is  electricity. 
No  logic  founded  on  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  of  which  an 
honest  mind  is  capable — no  honest  reflection,  however  profound, 
can  come  to  any  other  result,  for  no  other  adequate  force  is  known. 
Deceive  ourselves  as  we  may — place  confidence  in  the  opinions 
and  authority  of  other  minds  as  we  may — to  that  complexion  we 
must  come  at  last.  That  agency  is  sufficient.  No  other  known 
agent  is.  Logically  and  irresistibly  we  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  is  the  cause  ;  and  here  we  may  add,  that  every  fact  in 
nature  rightly  understood,  confirms  the  view.  I  have  not  space 
remaining  to  examine  in  extenso  the  character  of  this  agent,  and 
the  mode  in  which  it  operates  as  the  organizing  and  motive  force 
of  the  system.  Nor  is  it  of  practical  consequence  that  I  should. 
If  I  have  developed  the  system  and  the  operation  of  its  laws  and 
their  effects,  as  discoverable  by  our  senses  as  matter  of  fact,  and 
as  they  bear  practically  upon  our  interests,  I  have  done  all  that 
I  purposed,  all  that  it  is  practically  important  to  do.  An  induc- 
tive examination  of  the  character  of  this  agent  and  its  mode  of 
operation  in  every  particular  ca^e,  would  require  a  collection  and 
array  of  facts,  and  an  investigation  of  its  associated  relations  to 
heat,  light,  and  magnetism,  in  order  to  a  correct  induction,  which 
would  extend  this  volume  beyond  any  reasonable  limit.  For 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

such  an  examination  and  investigation,  I  have  accumulated  much 
material,  and  it  may  be  the  work  of  future  leisure  hours.  Yet  I 
do  not  feel  inclined  to  pass  a  subject  of  such  engrossing  interest 
unnoticed,  and  as  if  I  had  no  conceptions  of  its  mode  of  opera- 
tion ;  and  I  will  briefly  allude,  in  a  few  general  propositions,  to  the 
manner  in  which  electricity  may  operate  in  controlling  the  system 
and  its  laws. 

We  are  far  from  fully  understanding  the  nature  of  this  element, 
or  of  its  associated  relations  to  heat,  light,  and  magnetism,  yet  we 
know  enough  of  it  to  be  able  to  trace  in  a  general  way,  the  agency 
we  know  it  must  exert. 

There  is  electricity  in  everything,  and  it  is  associated  with 
every  law  of  ihe  physical  world,  unless  it  be  the  attraction  of 
gravitation,  and  Faraday  never  despaired  of  proving  that  it  was 
identical,  or  associated  with  that.  If  it  is  not  in  itself  the  vital  force 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  creation,  it  is  certainly  associated 
with  it,  or  a  component  of  it,  and  capable  of  controlling  it.  If  it 
does  not  in  itself  constitute  the  law  of  chemical  affinity,  of  crys- 
talization,  of  evaporation  and  condensation,  it  is  certainly  associ- 
ated with  those  laws,  however  they  may  operate.  It  is  associated 
with  light,  if  it  be  not  light ;  for  it  will  produce  the  most  intense 
light  known.  It  is  associated  with  heat  in  all  its  manifestations 
and  operations,  if  heat  be  not  a  phase  or  form  of  it,  and  its  as- 
sociation with  magnetism  is  such  as  to  leave  little  doubt  that  mag- 
netism is  a  manifestation  of  it  by  one  of  its  modes  of  operation. 

Manifesting  itself  in  the  ordinary  operations  of  nature — pri- 
marily or  by  association,  it  is  not  regarded ;  but  when  it  is  disturbed 
and  excited  into  abnormal  activity,  it  becomes  the  visible  and 
powerful  agent  we  have  assumed  it  to  be.  Thus,  when  excited 
into  activity  and  drawn  from  the  atmosphere  by  the  electric  ma- 
chine it  becomes  a  controllable  but  immensely  powerful  and  de- 
structive agent.  So,  when  obtained  by  the  agency  of  chemical  af- 
finity and  decomposition,  it  becomes  the  same  controllable  and 
powerful  agent,  but  with  the  slight  modification  of  character  per- 
taining to  galvanism.  So  again,  when  electricity  is  communicated 
in  a  certain  way  to  soft  iron,  it  confers  upon  it  temporary  mag- 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  383 

netism,  and  if  communicated  to  steel,  it  attaches  itself  perma- 
nently to  it,  constituting  it  a  magnet  with  opposite  polarities,  and 
with  permanent  electric  currents  around  it. 

Now  with  this  brief  resume  of  some  of  the  salient  points  in 
the  character  of  electricity,  so  far  as  we  at  present  understand  it, 
let  me  state  in  a  few  concise  propositions  the  manner  in  which  this 
agent  may,  and  so  far  as  we  can  now  judge,  does  organize  and 
control  the  atmospheric  system  and  its  phenomena. 

I.  The  earth  is  a  magnet,  but  not  a  natural  magnet.     All  bodies 
may  be  magnetised  temporarily  by  causing  currents  of  electricity 
to  flow  around  them.     A  few  can  be  magnetised  permanently, 
and  are  naturally  magnetic.     The  natural  electricity  of  the  earth 
and  the  atmosphere,  or  of  any  other  body,  is  excited  into  activity 
and  made  to  flow  in  currents,  not  only  by  the  disturbance  of  chem- 
ical affinity,  the  decomposition  of  composite  bodies,  the  disturbance 
of  the  laminae  of  crystallization,  but  also  by  the  unequal  heating 
of  them,  the  currents  of  electricity  originating  or  being  excited 
in  the  heated  part  and  flowing  to   the  colder.     Electricity  so  ex- 
cited and  made  to  flow  in  currents  is  termed  thermal  electricity. 

II.  That  portion  of  the  earth  upon  which  the  sun  shines  at  any 
given  hour  of  the  day,  is  warmer  than  the  portion  which  lies  so 
far  west  of  it  as  to  be  stilt  enveloped  in  night.     According  to  the 
law  of  thermo-electricity,  currents  must  be  excited  at  the  place 
where  the  earth  is  being  heated,  and  flow  to  the  west  toward  that 
portion  of  the  earth  which  is  coolest.     The  contrast  between  the 
heat  of  the  earth  and  the  atmosphere  at  2  P.M.,  and  that  portion 
which  is  still  enveloped  in  night  at  4  A.M.  is  very  great, — upon 
some  surfaces  not  less  than  60°.     The  electric  currents  which  are 
constantly  excited  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  where  it  is  day,  flow 
around  to  the  west  where  it  is  night,  and  thus  form  a  permanent 
succession  of  currents  flowing  around  the  earth  from  east  to  west 
as  it  presents  its  surface  to  the  action  of  the  sun  during  its  daily 
revolution.     By  a  central  belt  of  currents  encircling  the  earth 
within  the  tropies,  thus  excited  and  operating,  the  earth  is  consti- 
tuted a  magnet.     It  is  not,  as  I  have  said,  my  purpose  to  intro- 
duce here  the  proof  of  this.     I  will  simply  say  that  it  is  not  new 


384  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

with  me,  but  is  a  theory  of  Ampere,  and  any  globular  body  may 
be  magnetized  temporarily,  exhibiting  all  the  elements  of  a  mag- 
net, such  as  dip,  declination,  and  horizontal  and  vertical  force,  by 
passing  currents  of  electricity  around  it.  Illustrations  of  this  are 
found  in  our  text  books. 

How  far  the  power  of  the  solar  rays  assist  in  producing  mag- 
netism by  direct  action  of  the  magnetic  ray,  is  an  unsolved  ques- 
tion. Howard,  whom  Steinmetz  styles  the  "  Father  of  English 
meteorology,"  has  the  following  note  in  his  third  volume : 

Magnetism  of  the  solar  rays,  as  found  in  Milton. 

"  The  golden  sun,  in  splendor  likest  heaven, 

Allured  his  eye ;  *  *  * 

*  *  where  the  great  luminary, 

(Aloof  the  vulgar  constellations  thick, 

That  from  his  lordly  eye  keep  distance  due,) 

Dispenses  light  from  far.     They,  as  they  move 

Their  starry  dance,  in  numbers  that  compute 

Days,  months  and  years,  towards  his  all-cheering  lamp, 

Turn  swift  their  various  motions,  or  are  turned 

By  his  magnetic  beam,  that  gently  warms 

The  universe,  and  to  each  inward  part, 

With  gentle  penetration,  though  unseen, 

Shoots  invisible  virtue  even  to  the  deep." 

What  shall  we  say  to  this  fine  conception  of  our  great  poet, 
now  that  the  philosophers  have  ascertained  by  direct  experiment, 
that  the  violet  ray  of  the  solar  spectrum  is  actually  capable  of 
rendering  a  needle  magnetic  which  has  never  been  touched  by 
the  loadstone,  or  by  an  artificial  magnet  ?  He  seems  to  have 
had  a  thought  (natural  enough  in  the  then  state  of  science,) 
that  the  earth  revolved  from  west  to  east  in  consequence  of  a 
peculiar  attraction  exercised  on  its  substance  by  the  sunbeams." 

I  am  not  satisfied  that  this  conception  of  Milton's  may  not  yet 
appear  to  be  philosophically  true. 

III.  Parallel  currents  of  electricity  have  a  tendency  to  con- 
verge toward  each  other.  Doubtless,  the  primary  central  cur- 
rents flowing  to  the  west,  exist  under  the  entire  central  condition, 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


converging  toward  the  center  where  the  currents  are  most  intense, 
and  where  the  great  central  belt  of  rains  is  found. 

IV.  As  the  sun  in  its  transits  is  more  vertical,  and  acts  with 
greater  heat'ng  power  on  the  summer  side  of  the  central  belt,  the 
currents  gradually  become  more  intense  upon  that  side  and  less 
intense  on  the  other,  and  thus  the  central  condition  with  its  belt 
of  rains  follows  the  sun  in  its  transits,  because  the  sun  is  con- 
tinually creating  a  new  focus  of  intense  currents.  And  for  the 
same  reason  the  central  condition  continues  to  move  north  or 


/ 

>c    -e* 

vp^= 

:±^r—      "               /  f    2_ZS  2 

386  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

south  after  the  sun  has  reversed  his  transit,   and  until  it  has 
heated  up  the  waters  and  earth  on  the  reverse  side. 

V.  All  successive  currents  of  electricity  induce  secondary  cur- 
rents on  each  side  of  the  primary  one,  and  they  flow  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  to,  and  parallel  with,  the  primary  current.     Such 
currents  are  produced  on  either  side  of  the  central  condition  and 
in  the  temperate  and  polar  zones ;  which  gives  to  the  atmosphere 
and  all  the  conditions  contained  in  it,  a  tendency  or  drift  to  the 
eastward. 

VI.  A  second  secondary  current  is  sometimes  induced  by  the 
first  secondary,  and  that  too  moves  parallel  with  and  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  to  its  inducing  current.     Prof.  Coffin  thinks  he  has 
shown  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  an  easterly  movement  of  the 
atmosphere,  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic  latitudes.     I  do  not  con- 
sider the  evidence  sufficient  to  establish  the  fact,  but  if  it  be  true 
it  is  doubtless  the  effect  of  a  second  induced  system  of  secondary 
currents.     Supposing  it   true,  however,  the   systems  of  currents 
would  be  substantially  as  represented  in  the  diagram,  at  the  ex- 
reme  northern  transit.      (See  Fig.  56.) 

VII.  By  this  method  of  magnetization  there  is  also  produced 
in  or  over  the  earth,  a  class  of  lateral  currents  like  those  discov- 
erable in  all  magnets  by  the  aid  of  iron  filings.     The  following 
diagram  exhibits  the  currents  as  discoverable  in  a  bar  magnet, 
and  we  may  assume  it  to  be  true  that  such  lateral  currents  exist 
in  and  over  the  earth. 

FIG.  57. 


The  following  diagram  exhibits  their  appearance  as  observed 
by  Faraday  in  the  globe  magnet.  It  is  taken  from  one  of  the 
,plates  appended  to  the  third  volume  of  his  "  Researches." 


THE  ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM.  387 

FIG.  58. 


This  is  a  section  through  the  center  of  the  magnet,  and  shows 
the  manner  in  which  the  lines  of  force  arrange  the  filings  on  each 
side.  The  reader  will  observe  that  round  the  center  of  the  globe 
from  east  to  west,  shown  in  this  section  only  at  the  sides,  the  cur- 
rents are  clearly  exhibited,  extending  from  one  side  or  hemisphere 
to  the  other.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  are  repre- 
sentations of  the  manner  in  which  the  currents  of  electricity  flow 
around  natural  magnets. 

VIII.  The  magnetic  currents  or  currents  of  electricity  which 
flow  outwardly  from  the  earth,  are  recognized  by  us  in  various 
ways.  Faraday  intercepted  them  by  a  revolving  wire,  which,  by 
its  revolutions  cut  them  and  obtained  from  the  end  of  the  wire 
currents  of  electricity,  of  low  intensity  but  considerable  volume, 
with  which  he  experimented.  The  flow  of  these  currents  is  vari- 
able in  quantity,  and  when  the  quantity  is  excessive,  the  aurora 
is  produced  by  them  in  the  upper,  attenuated  hemisphere.  Some- 
times when  the  quantity  is  very  excessive,  constituting  what 


388  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Humboldt  calls  magnetic  storms,  they  produce  an  aurora  in  all 
parts  of  the  atmosphere,  and  then  the  telegraphic  wires  can  be 
worked  by  them,  without  a  battery.  Several  such  ca-:es  have  oc- 
curred in  this  country  within  a  few  years.  The  working  of  the 
telegraph  wires  by  magnetic  currents  indicates  clearly  that  Prof. 
Henry  erred  in  attributing  to  them  no  force  but  that  of  direction, 
in  his  meteorological  articles,  hereinbefore  referred  to,  in  which 
he  assumed  that  magnetism  exerted  no  force  except  a  directive 
one  upon  the  needle.  He  failed  to  comprehend  the  import  and 
foundation  of  the  views  which  he  attempted  to  negate.  Mag- 
netism consists  of,  or  has  associated  with  it,  electric  currents,  and 
all  electric  currents  are  lines  of  force,  as  Faraday  has  abundantly 
demonstrated.  Faraday's  last  volume  was  published  in  1855, 
and  had  probably  escaped  the  notice  of  the  Professor. 

IX.  All  currents  of  electricity  passing  through  the  atmosphere 
tend  to  displace  it,  or  to  create  currents  in  it.  This  is  abundantly 
proved  by  the  brush  discharge,  and  in  other  ways.  Thus  we  at- 
tribute thunder  to  the  recoil  of  the  air  into  the  vacuum  which  the 
current  of  electricity  has  occasioned  by  carrying  the  air  with  it 
downwards  in  passing  through  the  atmosphere.  In  substantially 
the  same  manner  it  carries  the  air  upward  in  the  tornado.  To  a 
certain  extent  it  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  the  recoil  of  the  at- 
mosphere into  the  vacuum  makes  the  thunder,  yet  the  concussion 
exerted  by  the  displacing  force,  especially  of  its  initiatory  rami- 
fications before  they  unite  in  a  stream,  is  first  heard,  and  constitutes 
a  part  of  what  we  term  thunder,  and  the  recoil  occasions  the 
heavy  pound  which  seems  to  descend  upon  us.  The  long-continued 
rolling  of  thunder  dying  away  in  the  distance,  is  reverberation  in 
the  chamber  between  the  upper  and  middle  strata  of  cloud,  when 
the  discharge  is  between  these  two  strata,  from  one  to  the  other. 

These  magneto  electric  currents  are  constantly  being  discharged 
from  trees,  and  mountains,  and  every  object  connected  with  the 
earth.  They  have  much  to  do  with  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
The  traveler  who  moves  rapidly  in  a  railway  car,  may  be  invig- 
orated by  cutting  them,  while  his  nervous  system  will  be  excited. 
But  if  his  nervous  system  is  weak,  he  will  become  tired  by  cutting 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  389 

them,  though  the  movement  of  the  car  is  as  easy  as  a  drawing- 
room. 

X.  These  lateral  currents  have  much  to  do  in  constituting  the 
great,  permanent,  general  movements  of  the  atmosphere  ;  with 
the  trade  winds  while  surface  trades,  and  when  constituting  the 
upper  trade  or  equatorial  current.     But  most  of  the  special  and 
local  winds  are  the  result  of  static  electric  induction  and  attrac- 
tion. 

XI.  Evaporation  is  an  electric  process,  aided  by  heat,  but  ex- 
isting independently  of  it,  for  ice  and  snow  evaporate  in  the  arctic 
regions  and  everywhere   and  at  all  experienced  temperatures. 
The  vapor  when  evaporated  is   combined  with  electricity  and 
oxygen,  and  exists  by  force  of  that   combination  in  the   atmos- 
phere, and  the  disturbance  of  the  electricity  and  the  combination,  by 
static  induction  or  other  action,  occasions  the  condensation  of  the 
vapor,  the  formation  of  vesicles,  and  the  constitution  of  a  cloud, 
and  the  diffusion  of  the  electricity  thus  set  free  over  the  surface 
of  the  vesicles.     All  these  four  are  the  effect  of  a  disturbance  of 
the  electricity  of  the  combination. 

On  this  point  I  regret  that  my  limits  will  not  permit  me  to 
copy  from  Meissner's  researches  on  "  Ozone,  Antozone,  the  elec- 
trization of  oxygen,  and  the  formation  of  cloud,  etc."  He  has 
opened  out  the  subject  in  a  manner  which  should  be  followed  up 
by  tho^e  engaged  in  such  pursuits.  His  discoveries  and  those  of 
Faraday  in  relation  to  the  magnetization  of  oxygen  have  laid  the 
foundation  for  a  clear  understanding  of  the  processes  of  evapora- 
tion, condensation,  and  the  formation  of  cloud.  When  scientists 
get  out  of  the  Halley  rut,  the  subject  will  soon  be  fully  developed. 
(See  Prof.  Johnson's  review  of  Meissner's  work.  American 
Journal  of  Science,  vols.  37,  38,  N.  S.) 

XI I .  Bearing  these  facts,  in  mind,  let  us  glance  at  the  operation 
of  the  cause  in  producing  various  organizations. 

The  trade-winds  are  probably  produced  primarily  by  the  lateral 
magneto-electric  currents  of  the  earth.  Upon  islands  which  lie 
near  the  outer  limits  of  the  northern  trade  in  summer,  the  surface 
and  upper  trade  constitute  distinct  strata  of  a  different  character. 


390  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

When  the  surface  trade  is  of  sufficient  volume  to  cover  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  islands,  they  have  unbroken  drouth.  As  the  surface- 
trade  recedes  in  the  fall,  and  the  upper  trade  comes  in  contact 
with  the  elevations,  rain  falls  upon  and  to  the  leeward  of  them, 
and  the  line  of  rain  descends  the  slopes  as  the  surface  trade  de- 
creases in  depth.  These  facts  indicate  the  initiation  of  the  sur- 
face trade  by  the  permanent  magneto-electric  currents.  As  the 
surface  trades  pass  on  beneath  the  stratum  of  cirrus  condensation 
which  overlies  them,  they  are  affected  statically,  and  storms  and 
showers  and  squalls  are  produced  in  them.  So  the  belt  of  rains 
is  constituted.  As  they  pass  on  beyond  the  belt  of  conden?a;ion 
if  they  are  in  moderate  volume,  they  become  clear  again,  and  pass 
as  upper  or  counter-trades  into  the  opposite  hemisphere,  but  par- 
tially deprived  of  their  vapor.  Arriving  in  that  hemisphere,  they 
are  exposed  to  the  static,  electric  induction  of  the  posithe  atmos- 
phere of  the  upper  story,  and  the  negative  electric  induction  of 
the  earth.  Storms  or  showers  are  produced  as  one  or  the  other 
influence  predominates,  and  operates  with  sufficient  force.  Thus, 
in  most  of  our  large,  extensive  storms,  which  originate  upon  the 
level  interior  of  our  country,  the  incipient  condensation  is  discov- 
erable in  the  upper  story  in  the  form  of  cirrus,  or  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  trade-story  in  the  form  of  cirro-stratus.  Subsequently 
the  stratus  is  formed  in  the  trade-story  or  its  inferior  portion,  and 
after  that  the  wind  and  the  scud  are  by  like  induction,  and  by  at- 
traction, produced  in  the  surface  story.  In  this  class  of  cases, 
the  storm  is  originated  by  the  positive  inductive  action  of  the 
electricity  of  the  upper  atmosphere. 

There  is  a  class  of  cases  where  the  inductive  action  of  the 
earth  is  clearly  visible  in  producing  condensation  and  rain,  as  in 
the  islands  referred  to,  and  as  upon  Table  cloth  mountain  at  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  all  other  cases  where  the  upper  trade 
is  intercepted  by  mountain  ranges.  There  are  undoubtedly  in- 
stances, where  the  entire  surface  story  is  surcharged  with  vapor, 
that  showers  and  dashes  of  rain  are  produced  by  the  inductive 
action  of  the  earth.  This  is  frequently  true  in  England,  but  it 
is  not  common  here.  As  a  rule,  our  general  storms  are  initiated 


THE    ATMOSPI1KK1C    SYSTEM.  391 

in  the  great  central  condition  or  in  the  polar  zone,  by  the  positive 
electricity  of  the  upper  story,  acting  by  induction  upon  the  upper 
trade  of  the  second  story,  surcharged  with  the  vapor  of  evapora- 
tion from  the  ocean  surface  where  it  originated.  That  the  earth 
may  at  the  same  time  act  inductively  upon  the  inferior  surface  of 
the  upper  trade  where  the  country  is  level,  may  be  true,  and  it 
probably  is  true  when  the  storm  is  passing  over  considerable  ele- 
vations, and  is  particularly  true  in  respect  to  our  summer  belts 
of  showers. 

Induced  electric  excitement  is  felt,  as  we  have  seen,  far  in  ad- 
vance of  all  storms.  It  influences  animal  and  vegetable  life,  as 
we  have  seen.  It  checks  and  stops  evaporation,  and  disturbs  the 
combination  of  electricity  with  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere,  pro- 
ducing partial  condensation,  and  increasing  humidity.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  assume  that  the  increase  cf  humidity,  as  indicated  by 
the  hygrometer  or  by  its  deposition  on  surfaces,  is  owing  to  an 
actual  increase  of  the  amount  of  water  in  the  atmosphere.  Evap- 
oration decreases  before  an  increase  of  humidity  is  apparent,  and 
humidity  goes  on  increasing  long  after  evaporation  has  ceased. 
Tiiis  increase  of  humidity  is,  as  I  have  said,  the  effect  of  electric 
induction,  disturbing  the  electricity  of  the  vapor,  and  causing  the 
apparent  increase  of  humidity.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  sudden  in- 
crease of  the  quantity  of  vapor  in  the  air,  it  is  simply  an  increase 
of  that  which  is  uncombined. 

The  electric  induction  which  thus  causes  humidity,  and  affects 
the  feelings  of  men  and  animals,  may  be  from  the  more  or  less 
perfectly  formed  cirrus  in  the  upper  story,  or  from  the  earth,  af- 
fected by  the  still  distant  but  approaching  storm. 

I  do  not  think  we  have  yet  arrived  at  a  satisfactory  solution  of 
the  cause  of  the  barometric  oscillations,  and  I  think  it  quite  as 
likely  as  not,  that  it  will  ultimately  appear  that  they  are  occa- 
sioned by  electric  induction  also.  There  is,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
the  finest  weather,  a  group  of  diurnal  changes,  coincident  with  the 
electric  and  magnetic  changes,  and  apparently  independent  of 
temperature.  There  is  also  an  obvious  tendency  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  atmospheric  conditions  in  the  afternoon,  and  after  the 


392  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

maximum  of  temperature  has  been  attained.  This  is  so,  when 
the  trade  current  is  in  large  volume,  and  the  temperature  is  mod- 
erate or  uniform,  and  the  sun  obscured  by  constant  cloudiness. 
We  have  seen  that  the  barometric  changes  are  coincident  with 
the  electric  and  magnetic  ones.  I  am  aware  that  scientists  now 
attribute  the  diurnal  barometric  changes  to  changes  in  the  tension 
of  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere.  I  think  it  by  no  means  certain 
that  the  cause  assigned  is  the  true  one.  And  it  is  probable  that 
the  tension  of  vapor  is  an  electric  effect,  but  I  have  not  now 
space  for  a  discussion.  It  belongs  properly  to  an  examination  of 
the  mode  in  which  electricity  produces  and  controls  other  atmos- 
pheric phenomena,  and  must  be  left  for  future  inquiry.  Certain 
it  is  that  the  changes  in  the  barometer  and  in  the  feelings  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  are  in  advance  of  thermometric  or  hygrometric 
changes  which  can  account  for  them. 

The  advocates  of  the  Halley  theory  have  used  every  art  and 
endeavor  to  make  it  appear  that  all  the  intense  exhibitions  of 
electric  action  which  it  is  conceded  attend  all  intense  atmospher- 
ic conditions  are  incidental  results,  and  not  operative  as  a  cause  ; 
and  yet  they  concede  that  when  a  cloud  is  formed,  electricity  is 
set  free  during  the  act  of  condensation,  and  diffuses  itself  over  the 
globules  or  vesicles  so  that  the  cloud  becomes  a  highly  charged 
electric  body.  If  electricity  was  not  in  combination  with  the 
vapor  before  its  condensation,  how  could  it  be  set  free  as  a 
consequence  of  condensation  ?  That  it  was  so  combined  then, 
must  be  conceded.  Is  it  any  the  less  philosophical  or  logical  to 
say  that  when  the  combination  is  disturbed  by  inductive  action 
upon  the  e'ectricity  of  the  combination,  the  vapor  must  be  con- 
densed ?  And  if,  as  I  think,  it  is  well  established  that  the  con- 
densation consists  in  the  formation  of  an  infinite  number  of  small 
vesicles  which  electricity  can  form  and  cold  cannot,  I  think  it 
very  clear  that  the  formation  of  cloud  is  an  electric  inductive 
process,  as  I  have  assumed,  and  that  in  all  extensive  storms  the 
primary  inductive  action  is  by  the  positive  electricity  of  the  upper 
story,  and  the  forming  process  may  generally  be  observed  upon 
the  advance  portion  of  the  storm. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


393 


This  forming  process  may  also  be  observed  on  the  easterly  side 
of  a  belt  of  showers  as  it  drifts  to  the  eastward.  The  following 
diagram  exhibits  the  location  of  a  belt  of  showers  near  the  focal 
path  in  summer. 

FIG.  59. 


The  belt  thus  exhibited  has  a  drift  and  a  forming  movement  to 
the  eastward,  both  of  which  have  been  heretofore  illustrated. 
But  let  us  re-examine  for  a  moment. 

Two  hundred  miles  more  or  less  to  the  eastward  of  the  eastern 
edge  of  that  belt  the  atmosphere  is  in  a  normal  state,  and  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  approaching  belt.  A  few  hours  later  and 
when  the  belt  has  approached  nearer,  its  influence  begins  to  be  felt. 
And  how  ?  First,  evaporation  ceases — the  hygrometer  begins  (o 
show  an  increase  of  humidity,  and  the  barometer  falls.  There  is 
a  rise  of  temperature,  and  the  air  begins  to  feel  sultry  and  close, 
and  commences  to  move  toward  the  belt.  Men,  animals,  and 
plants  begin  to  feel  the  influence  thus  exerted.  Heads,  which 
are  accustomed  to  ache,  when  thunder  showers  are  approaching, 
begin  to  ache.  Now  the  Halley  theory  cannot  account  for  these 
18 


394  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

changes.  They  are  clearly  the  effect  of  electric  induction  and 
influence,  extending  from  beneath  the  belt  of  cloud,  and  operating 
through  the  earth  or  the  atmosphere.  As  the  belt  approaches, 
these  states  all  increase  in  intensity — the  barometer  falls  more  rap- 
idly— the  air  grows  more  sultry — its  humidity  increases — the  de- 
position of  moisture  increases — headache  increases — the  wind  also 
increases  in  strength,  and  patches  of  scud  form  and  float  along 
horizontally  in  it  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  where  the  difference  of  temperature  is  trifling,  and  they 
could  not  be  and  obviously  are  not  produced  by  the  cold  of  ascen- 
sion or  expansion,  for  they  are  in  distinct  patches.  The  scud  of 
the  winds  are  also  a  refutation  of  the  Ilalley  theory. 

All  thus  go  on  until  the  belt  of  showers  appears  above  the 
northwestern  horizon,  and  thereafter  reaches  the  place.  Then  the 
belt  of  condensation  may  be  observed,  made  up  of  masses  of  cu- 
mulo-strati,  with  an  advance  condensation  agitated  by  lateral 
currents  in  which  new  curnulo-strati  are  continually  forming,  in 
part  by  induction  upon  the  atmosphere  in  its  front,  and  in  part  by 
the  aid  of  the  surface  atmosphere  which  it  attracts  to  itself. 
Sometimes  that  surface  wind  and  its  scud,  when  in  small  volume, 
may -be  seen  losing  themselves  in  the  advance  forming  mass,  at 
other  times  when  in  large  volume  passing  in  part  under  and  across 
the  entire  belt,  as  they  did  at  Springfield,  in  August,  1859. 

By  the  forming  process  and  the  drift,  the  belt  will  make  an 
easterly  progress  of  12  or  15  miles  an  hour,  and  sometime.-;  more, 
according  to  its  intensity  and  the  season  of  the  year,  although  the 
masses  oP  condensation  move  E.N.E.,  and  on  the  next  day  it 
may  have  the  position  represented  by  the  most  eastern  of  the  two 
belts  upon  the  diagram,  Fig.  60,  having  passed  in  the  manner 
described  over  the  space  between  the  two  repre  ented  locations. 
I  let  the  representation  of  its  location  on  the  first  day  remain, 
and  add  its  location  on  the  next,  that  they  may  be  compared. 

Upon  the  space  over  which  it  has  passed  there  is  a  cool,  clea;-, 
dry,  northwest  surface  wind,  a  rising  barometer,  and  a  change 
in  all  the  phenomena  of  the  previous  day. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYsTEM. 
FlG.    60. 


395 


The  woolen  manufacturer  had  no  occasion  to  take  any  precau- 
tions to  prevent  the  action  of  electricity  upon  the  wool,  as  it  ran 
through  his  machines,  on  the  day  when  the  belt  was  approaching, 
and  when  the  atmosphere  was  humid  But  on  the  next  day, 
when  the  belt  had  passed  by  and  the  atmosphere  became  dry  and 
was  left  full  of  free  electricity  by  the  deposition  in  rain  of  the 
vapor  with  which  it  had  been  combined,  he  finds  it  necessary  to 
neutralize  that  electricity  by  a  supply  of  moisture  in  his  card- 
room  from  sprinkling,  or  the  letting  in  of  steam.  And  that  cool^ 
dry  northwest  wind  will  evaporate  the  moisture  from  pools  by  the 
aid  of  its  electricity,  with  a  rapidity  which  it  could  not  do  if  de- 
prived of  its  electricity,  and  by  the  aid  of  heat  alone. 

There  is  always  more  or  less  cirrus  formation  over  the  belt  of 
showers,  though  sometimes  existing  in  the  form  of  misty  cirrus 
only.  Doubtless  that  misty  formation  aids  in  the  induction  which 
produces  the  belt,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  in  that  class  of 
conditions  the  principal  induction  is  from  the  earth.  Certainly 
the  principal  discharges  of  electricity  are  disruptive  or  explosive 
discharges — strikings  as  they  are  called — from  the  clouds  to  the 


396  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

earth,  the  earth  being  negative,  and  the  inferior  surface  of  the 
cloud  stratum  being  positive.  Such  disruptive  discharges  to  the 
earth  indicate  that  the  earth  is  then  the  inducing  body,  and  draws 
to  itself  the  positive  electricity  which  its  induction  accumulates 
in  the  base  of  the  cloud. 

There  is  another  kind  of  electric  discharge  termed  the  convcc- 
tive  discharge,  which  is  in  a  continuous  current  or  stream  without 
disruption  or  explosion.  This  is  the  most  common  method  by 
which  the  negative  electricity  of  the  surface  atmosphere  and  of 
the  earth  is  discharged  upward  to  the  clouds.  It  is  by  such  a 
discharge  that  the  tornado,  the  hurricane,  and  the  straight  line 
gust  are  produced.  The  manner,  as  I  think,  is  this  :  When  the 
counter  or  upper  trade  of  the  second  story  is  in  unusual  volume, 
and  unusually  charged  with  vapor,  its  electricity  is  disturbed  by 
induction  from  the  positive  electricity  of  the  upper  story,  and  its 
stratum  of  cirrus  clouds.  The  negative  electricity  of  the  trade 
is  attracted  into,  and  accumulated  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  trade- 
story,  and  the  positive  electricity  repelled  and  accumulated  in  the 
lower  portion.  That  acts  inductively  upon  the  surface  atmos- 
phere and  the  earth,  which  become  highly  electrified  negatively, 
humid,  and  sultry,  and  the  surface  atmosphere  commences  dis- 
charging its  electricity  convectively  into  the  cloud.  This  discharge 
initiates  the  tornado.  Gradually  the  discharge  commences  farther 
and  farther  from  the  cloud,  the  current  is  polarized,  forming  a 
whirl  composed  of  double  currents,  and  as  the  electricity  of  the 
atmosphere  is  thereby  discharged,  the  currents  originate  lower 
down  until  their  place  of  origin  is  from  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  the  effects  of  its  violence  are  experienced  there  as  hereinbefore 
fully  described.* 

MEISNER  has  shown  enough  to  establish  the  identity  between 
the  Antozonic  or  Atmizonic  mist  produced  by  electricity,  when 
passed  through  moist  air,  and  the  strange,  white,  peculiar  mist  or 
cloud  of  the  tornado.  And  the  production  of  Antozone  and  its 

*NOTE.  While  these  pages  were  being  printed,  a  terrible  tornado  occurred  at  Cave  City. 
Kentucky,  in  the  night,  which  is  described  by  eye  witnesses  as  composed  of  "  Electric 
Spirals."  See  N.  Y.  Herald,  January  22,  1870. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  397 

peculiar  odor  by  the  lightning  of  thunder  showers  has  long  been 
known.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  sulphurous  odor.  So 
the  production  of  a  like  mist  or  vapor  and  even  cloud,  snow,  and 
ice  crystals  by  the  currents  of  the  earth,  when  sufficiently  excited 
and  intense  to  produce  the  Aurora  in  a  marked  degree,  are  well 
known.  This  connection  and  effect  are  evidence  of  identity  that 
cannot  be  disregarded,  and  we  may  have  it,  not  only  in  the  tornado, 
but  in  the  peculiar  white  scud  of  the  thunder  shower,  flitting 
across  in  front  of  the  dark  mass  of  cloud  beyond.  So  we  may 
trace  it  in  the  careful  description  of  intelligent  observers  in  every 
form  of  atmospheric  condition.  On  this  point  I  could  add  fifty 
citations  if  I  had  space  for  them,  but  they  must  be  left  with  a 
mass  of  other  material  for  a  future  occasion. 

In  all  cases  of  convective  discharge  -from  the  atmosphere  or 
earth  to  the  clouds,  produced  by  induction  from  the  cloud,  the 
currents  assume  polarity  and  constitute  the  opposite,  lateral  cur- 
rents of  the  atmospheric  conditions.  The  straight  line  hurricane 
and  the  straight  line  thunder  gust  are  produced  in  the  same  way. 
The  lateral  currents  produced  by  polarization  may  often  be  seen 
crossing  each  other  in  t\\Q  forming  advance  of  the  thunder  shower, 
and  the  straight  line  gust  may  be  seen  to  be  constituted  by  the 
attraction  of  the  cloud  drawing  the  atmosphere  after  it,  and  for- 
ward and  upward  to  where  that  forming  process  is  going  on. 
"Where  the  progress  of  the  cloud  and  the  forming  process  is  slow 
the  lateral  currents  are  visible  as  they  occur,  and  traceable  by 
their  effects.  Where  the  progress  of  the  cloud  belt  and  the  form- 
ing process  are  rapid,  they  are  not  so  clearly  visible  or  traceable. 

In  these  intense  conditions,  veins  of  violence  and  of  compara- 
tive inaction  are  traceable  ;  but  this  is  perfectly  intelligible.  The 
same  thing  is  true  in  all  storms  and  violent  winds.  The  gust 
which  threatens  with  destruction  at  one  instant,  and  would,  if  it 
continued  for  any  length  of  time,  destroy,  goon  ceases  almost  en- 
tirely, succeeded  very  soon  by  others.  These  alternations  are  com- 
mon in  all  storm  winds.  The  gusts  are  constituted  by  portions  of 
the  atmosphere,  more  highly  electrified  and  more  strongly  attract- 
ed than  the  portion  which  follows.  So  we  see  that  the  scud 


398  THE   ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

formed  in  the  surface  atmosphere  by  the  induction  of  the  cloud, 
and  drawn  towards  and  under  it  by  attraction,  are  formed  in  por- 
tions which  contain  larger  quantities  of  vapor,  and  move  more  or 
less  rapidly,  according  to  their  size  and  density.  They  doubtless 
often  move  much  faster  than  the  less  intensely  electrified  atmos- 
phere by  which  they  are  surrounded, 

Here  we  have  another  fact  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  Ilalley 
theory.  That  theory  calls  for  a  steady,  and  not  a  fitful  or  gusty 
ascent  of  the  heated  air — ^steidy  and  not  ^fitful,  gusty  or  puffy 
influx  of  the  surrounding  air.  But  we  all  know  that  nothing  like 
such  steady  influx  is  ever  experienced,  and  that  verygreat  altern- 
ations of  strength  and  moderation  attend  all  violent  winds.  Ir- 
regular action  by  puffs  and  gusts  is  always  present. 

But  it  is  time  to  draw  this  chapter  to  a  close.  I  greatly  re- 
gret that  I  have  not  space  for  other  facts,  and  for  citations  from 
Howard,  Hare,  Ampere,  Peltier,  Faraday,  Meissner,  and  other 
distinguished  men  who  have  investigated  this  branch  of  the  sub- 
ject. I  must  close  by  repeating  that  the  facts,  illustrations,  and 
citations  accumulated  upon  this  branch  of  our  inquiry,  and  from 
which  I  have  deduced  the  foregoing  propositions,  would  fill  a  small 
volume.  At  some  future  day,  if  the  cause  of  truth  should  require 
it,  I  may  separately  and  more  fully  develop  it. 

There  is  one  other  topic,  intimately  connected  with  the  clima- 
tology of  our  country,  which  I  ought  not  to  pass  unnoticed. 

The  magnetism  of  the  earth  is  not  uniformly  diffused  over  its 
surface.  It  is  concentrated  in  excess  in  two  lines,  or  rather  on 
two  areas  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  globe,  known  as  lines  of  no 
variation,  or  lines  upon  which  the  magnetic  needle  points  to  the 
north.  Departing  either  way  from  this  line  of  no  variation,  the 
needle  declines  towards  it,  and  ceases  to  point  directly  north. 
This  line  of  no  variation  commences  at  the  magnetic  pole  on  the 
northern  part  of  this  continent  in  lat.  72°,  Ion.  97°,  extending  southf 
bearing  to  the  east,  entering  the  Atlantic  Ocean  above  Charles- 
ton, crossing  the  eastern  portion  of  South  America,  and  pursu- 
ing the  same  course  to  a  south,  antarctic,  magnetic  pole.  Thi:; 
course  is  shown,  as  well  as  the  position  of  the  magnetic  equator, 
by  the  diagram,  Fig.  61. 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 


399 


Upon  this  diagram,  the  dip  of  the  needle  at  different  parts  of 
the  earth,  is  also  shown  by  the  arrows.     In  the  northern  hemis- 


phere, this  dip  is  shown  by  the  inclination  of  the  point  of  the 
arrow.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  it  is  shown  by  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  feathered  end  of  the  arrow.  The  location  of  the  mag- 
netic equator,  where  neither  end  of  the  arrow  dips,  is  shown  by 
the  arrow  which  maintains  its  horizontal  position.  The  arrows 
represent  the  position  which  is  taken  by  a  freely  suspended  mag- 
netic needle  at  the  points  upon  the  earth's  surface  where  they  are 
respectively  placed. 

There  is  another  corresponding  line  or  area  of  no  variation,  ex- 
tending from  another  magnetic  pole  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
earth,  in  the  northern  part  of  Asia,  southerly  to  another  magnetic 
pole  within  the  antarctic  circle.  All  the  facts  or  peculiarities 
which  apply  to  one  of  these  lines  or  areas,  is  equally  true  of  the 
other. 

These  areas  of  no  variation  are  also  areas  of  greater  magnetic 
intensity.  Thus,  the  intensity  which  is  represented  by  2,  in  the 
vicinity  of  our  magnetic  pole,  is  but  .74:3  at  the  magnetic  equator 
on  the  line  of  no  variation  in  the  South  Atlantic. 

The  first  important  fact  to  which  I  will  allude,  is  that  the  mag- 
netic poles  are  poles  of  cold,  and  that  all  the  isothermal  lines  of 
the  hemisphere  are  affected  by  this  area  of  no  variation,  and 


400 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC:  SYSTEM. 


greater  intensity.  The  following  diagram  shows  the  situation  of 
these  poles  of  cold  and  their  effect  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
earth,  as  shown; by  tho  isothermal  lines  or  lines  of  equal  temper- 
ature. It  is  a  view, of  the  earth  as  seen  from  above  the  North 
Pole. 

FIG.  62. 


In  the  above  cut  the  isothermal  lines  are  Centigrade.  The 
zero  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  is  the  freezing  point  of  water. 
or  32°  of  Fahrenheit.  The  boiling  point  of  water  is  100°  Cen- 
tigrade, or  212°  Fahrenheit,  A  degree  of  Centigrade  is  equal  to 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  401 

one  degree  and  four-fifths,  Fahrenheit.  The  0°  line  of  the  cut, 
therefore,  is  32°  of  Fahrenheit — the  line  of  5°  above  is  41°  Fah- 
renheit— the  line  of  5°  below  is  23°  Fahrenheit,  and  so  on. 
The  dark  lines  are  isothermal  lines,  and  the  dotted  lines  are  lines 
of  latitude. 

The  isothermal  lines  as  shown  upon  the  diagram,  are  undoubt- 
edly affected  by  the  warmth  of  the  oceans,  the  elevations  of  the 
land  and  other  causes,  but  the  connection  between  the  magnetism 
of  the  earth  and  its  temperature  is  clearly  traceable. 

The  connection  between  the  two  is  still  more  clearly  traceable 
in  the  connection  which  exists  between  the  magnetic  intensity 
of  the  lower  latitudes,  and  the  various  atmospheric  phenomena. 
The  greater  the  magnetic  intensity,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  intense  the  phenomena. 

The  magnetic  intensity  of  the  eastern  part  of  our  continent 
under  and  near  the  line  of  no  variation  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  Europe  or  of  the  Pacific  coast.  In  fact,  magnetic  intensity 
decreases  from  one  line  of  no  variation  to  some  point  near  midway 
between  the  two  lint  s,  and  then  increases  again  until  the  other  line 
is  reached.  Thus  the  intensity  which  is  about  1.8  in  Warren, 
Ohio,  in  lat.  41.16,  Ion.  72.57,  decreases  to  1.774  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  and  to  1.348  at  Paris.  The  intensity  decreases  in  like 
manner  as  we  follow  the  same  latitude  west  from  Ohio,  on  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Now  while  all  the  atmospheric  phenomena  in 
Ohio  are  intense,  and  tornadoes  and  thunder  gusts  are  so  prover 
bially  common  as  to  be  mentioned  in  our  elementary  works,  they 
are  comparatively  less  frequent  as  you  go  east  over  Europe,  and 
magnetic  intensity  decreases.  So  on  the  other  hand  as  we  go 
west,  we  find  that  all  the  more  violent  phenomena,  dependent 
upon  the  intense  action  of  electricity,  are  scarcely  known  upon 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
understand  the  cause  of  that  characteristic  which  gives  the  ocean 
its  name.  The  influence  of  that  excess  of  magnetism,  and  mag- 
neto-electricity, in  intensifying  our  climate,  our  diseases,  and  the 
energies  and  activity  of  our  people  in  the  Atlantic  States,  is  a 
most  suggestive  fact  in  relation  to  our  climatology,  and  as  evi- 


402  THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

dence  in  relation  to  this  branch  of  our  subject.  But  I  cannot 
dwell  upon  it. 

In  closing  the  volume,  I  desire  to  make  a  brief  appeal  to  sev- 
eral classes  of  practical  men.  If  the  contents  of  it  are  true,  and 
I  think  I  know  the  first  seven  chapters  to  be  substantially  so,  and 
I  believe  the  last  is  so  also,  then  an  entire  and  radical  revolution 
in  the  so-called  science  of  meteorology  is  inevitable,  and  but  a 
question  of  time.  Whether  that  shall  be  early,  so  as  to  benefit 
the  present  generat'on  or  not,  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which 
the  leading  classes  of  practical  men  shall  realize,  and  perform  their 
duty  in  the  premises.  Nothing  but  opposition  is  to  be  expected 
from  the  men  who  now  make  meteorology  a  specialty,  and  little 
aid  I  fear,  from  the  great  body  of  scientists,  who,  although  fair 
and  worthy  men  and  passive  recipients  and  supporters  merely  of 
the  H  alley  theory,  are  controlled  to  an  extent  they  scarcely  ap- 
preciate, by  a  minority  who  are  actively  and  persistently  engaged 
in  sustaining  it. 

Let  me  then  appeal  in  the  first  place  to  the  members  of  Con- 
gress— to  each  of  whom  a  copy  of  the  book  will  be  sent — to  ex- 
amine it  with  care,  and  give  the  country  a  telegraphic  weather 
system,  founded  on  the  developments  made  in  relation  to  the 
paths  of  the  storms,  at  the  various  seasons  of  the  year.  Such  a 
system,  if  employing  a  few  intelligent  observers,  at  representative 
points  accessible  to  the  telegraph  lines,  on  cross  sections  of  the 
paths  of  the  storms,  and  at  proper  distances,  and  reporting  to 
a  central  bureau  twice  each  day  the  slate  of  things  on  their  re- 
spective cross  sections,  would  not  be  a  very  cumbrous,  nor  a  very 
expensive  thing.  The  benefit  of  it,  if  properly  organized,  and 
placed  under  the  control  of  men  who  understand,  or  who  will  in- 
form themselves  fully  and  practically  in  relation  to  the  matter,  can 
scarcely  be  over-estimated.  But  the  European  systems  are  not 
models  for  us,  for  the  paths  of  our  storms  and  our  climatology 
differ  essentially  from  theirs. 

I  appeal  secondly  to  the  Journalists  of  the  country,  who  also 
are  a  power  in  the  land,  and  accustomed  to  weigh  and  discuss 
great  questions,  to  consider  whether  they  do  not  also  owe  a  like 


THE    ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM.  403 

duty  to  the  community  with  myself  and  others  in  relation  to  the 
matter,  and  ask  of  them  an  examination  of  the  book,  and  a  full 
expression  of  their  views,  that  discussion  may  be  had,  the  truth 
eli cited  and  defended,  and  the  smothering  process  be  no  longer 
possible. 

And  I  appeal  finally  to  the  great  body  of  professional  and  prac- 
tical men  in  the  country,  to  give  this  matter  attention,  and  see 
whether  an  early  and  radical  change  in  our  colleges  and  schools 
and  text  books,  is  not  imperatively  called  for  by  the  interests  of 
education  and  knowledge,  and  all  the  other  material  interests  of 
the  country,  and  if  so,  to  institute  such  measures  as  may  be  nec- 
essary to  effect  that  change.  LET  TKUTII  PREVAIL. 


FINIS. 


NOTE  I. 

SINCE  the  foregoing  pages  were  in  type  Congress  has  passed  the 
following  Resolution : 

JOINT  RESOLUTION  to  authorize  the  Secretary  of  War  to  provide  for 
taking  meteorological  observations  at  the  military  stations  and  other 
points  in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  for  giving  notice  on  the 
northern  lakes  and  seaboard  of  the  approach  and  force  of  storms. 
Be  it  resolved  by  the  Senate  and   House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  Secretary 
of  War  be,  and  he  hereby  is  authorized  and  required  to  provide  for 
taking  meteorological  observations  at  the  military  stations  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent,  and  at  other  points  in  the  States  and  Territories 
of  the  United  States,  and  for  giving  notice  on  the  northern  lakes  and 
on  the  seacoast,  by  magnetic  telegraph  and  marine  signals,  of  the  ap- 
proach and  force  of  storms. 

This  is  well  as  far  it  goes.  But  the  Agricultural  interest  is  quite  as 
important  as  the  Marine,  and  would  be  quite  as  much  benefited  by  a 
proper  weather  telegraph  system.  Other  special  interests  would  be 
greatly  subserved,  and  a  great  general  interest  gratified.  We  need, 
therefore,  and  sooner  or  later  must  have  such  a  system.  A  few  repre- 
sentative stations,  on  lines  cross-sectioning  the  focal  paths  of  the  condi- 
tions of  the  Atlantic  System,  as  I  have  developed  them,  reporting  through 
a  central  Bureau  twice  a  day,  in  season  for  the  morning  and  evening 
newspapers,  would  suffice.  No  other  benefit  of  equal  importance  is, 
or  can  be  conferred  by  Government  for  less  money. 

NOTE  II. 

I  was  aware  of  the  memoir  and  tables  of  Wolf  when  I  wrote  the 
pages  respecting  Sun  Spots,  but  I  had  good  reason  to  doubt  the  correct- 
ness of  the  tables,  and  of  the  principle  on  which  they  are  constructed, 
and  as  the  tables  of  Schwabe  are  sufficiently  accurate  and  reliable, 
and  for  a  considerable  period,  I  made  them  alone  the  basis  of  my 
investigation. 

(405) 


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